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http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/

 

Тема 10. The End of Victorianism: socialistic literature, realism, naturalism, neo-romanticism and the Aesthetic Movement.

Проблемные вопросы лекции. The development of various literary movements at the end of Victorianism. The development of socialistic ideas in England and its reflection in English literature. Thomas Hardy’s realistic novels. Naturalism in English literature. Neo-romanticism. Aesthetic values in Oscar Wilde’s creative works. Cult of beauty in art and life in the novel The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde.

Тезисы лекций. English realists of 19 c. used humor and satire that gave them possibility to deepen the realistic features of their novels. Very often satire was accompanied with tragic overtones. The main purpose for writers was realism, socially sharp, critical directed, epical in content. Satire was the main means for writing about life contradictions. For the realists of 19th c. was not so important the main overtones of novel – comic or tragic, they pursued their main goal – to realistic description of reality. The writers of the end of 19th c. were oriented on dramatic genres. Jorge Meredith published his novel “Egoist” with subtitle “narrative comedy’; Joseph Conrad gave a meaning to his novels as tragic; Thomas Hardy compared his novels with Sophocles; Jorge Moore used in his articles the term ‘tragic novel’ and ‘dramatic novel’. The changing literary tastes were reflected in the valuation of novelist’s classics. At the end of century realism contradicted to decadence permeated by pessimism, irrationalism and mysticism. Also we have to study the literature of imperialism and neo-romanticism, socialistic literature.

At the end of 19th century the movement of working class developed since the events of Paris Commune in France and well-spreading of socialistic ideas in England. There is one movement in the History of English Literature named the literature of socialistic movement. The ideas of socialism reached literature circles and as the result, several books of this movement got their popularity. Among the prominent authors of socialistic movement were William Morris, Ethel Lillian Voynich and Robert Tressol.

Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) achieved a reputation both as novelist and as poet, although most of his poems were not given to the world until after his career as a novelist had ended. His wider reputation began, with Tess of the D’Urbervilles (1891) and was established by Jude the Obscure (1896). After that time he devoted himself to poetry, writing a very large number of lyrics and ballads and a long poem in dramatic form. The Dynasts 1903-1908, in which he develops themes of the great world struggle centering about Napoleon.

Hardy began to write novels when George Eliot was at her height of her fame, and her influence is clearly to be seen in his work. Like her he is a psychologist and a bold realist, indeed, in his realism, he had also before him the examples of the French naturalists, Zola and Maupassant.

Thomas Hardy attempted in his novels to comment on the macrocosm of the human race through an intense study of a microcosm well known to him, the rural society of nineteenth-century 'Wessex', named after the ancient kingdom of Alfred the Great. In his novels nature plays an important part; indeed Nature is herself a character. Mostly his novel’s scenes are set among trees, farms, fields, and low hills. He thought that the moral principles of human life were best preserved in the country. It was the reason of confrontation in his novels the morally pure country with dirty immorality of city. The writer always defended rural England as the base of national culture, patriarchal traditions which slowly disappeared with the further development of capitalism. Hardy disliked bourgeois progress and often gave sharp, satiric criticism to capitalism. His critical approach often was intervolved with pessimistic and fatal moods which were sprang along with the collapse of illusions. National character of Hardy’s masterpieces was in deep description of tragedy which fell down on the shoulders of people living in rural areas. The clash of capitalism and countryside was the main theme of Hardy’s novels. The environment for Hardy played an important role. Hardy studied how a character was governed by Environment and verse visa. That is why his first novels were grouped in Novels of Character and Environment".

Naturalism is a mode of fiction that was developed by a school of writers in accordance with a particular philosophical thesis. This thesis, a product of the evolution theory of Charles Darwin, held that a human being exists entirely in the order of nature and does not have a soul nor any mode of participating in a religious or spiritual world beyond the natural world, and therefore, that such a being is merely a higher-order animal whose character and behavior are entirely determined by two kinds of forces, heredity and environment. A person inherits compulsive instincts- especially hunger, the drive to accumulate possessions, and sexuality – and is then subject to the social and economic forces in the family, the class, and the milieu into which that person is born. Thus, naturalists believed that one's heredity and surroundings decide one's character. Whereas realism seeks only to describe subjects as they really are, naturalism also attempts to determine "scientifically" the underlying forces (i.e. the environment or heredity) influencing these subjects' actions. They are both opposed to romanticism, in which subjects may receive highly symbolic, idealistic, or even supernatural treatment. Naturalistic works often include awkward or pitiable subject matter. The main proponent of naturalism in fiction was Emile Zola, who wrote a treatise on the subject ("Le roman experimental") and employed the style in his many novels. Naturalistic works exposed the dark harshness of life, including poverty, racism, prejudice, disease, prostitution, filth, etc. They were often very pessimistic and frequently criticized for being too blunt.

Aspects of the naturalistic mode in selection and management of subject matter and its harsh manner of rendering its materials are apparent in many novels and dramas, such as Hardy’s Jude the Obscure, various plays by Eugene O’Neill in 1920, in naturalistic novel of Emile Zola’s, for example Nana, 1880 and in Theodore Dreiser’s An American Tragedy, 1925. In English literature the representatives of Naturalistic mode were George Gissing (1857-1903), George Moore (1852-1933), Arthur Morrison (1863-1945).

Gissing's fiction is broadly naturalistic and anti-romantic in taste and exclusively urban in setting. His early novels are set among the London slums and deal with the life there in remorseless and penetrating, but not very sympathetic, detail: the best of these is The Nether World (1889), a masterpiece of minute, unsentimental observation of conditions at the bottom of the social pyramid. Other novels, of which the most characteristic is The Unclassed (1884) and the best New Grub Street (1891), deal with a special class of characters which Gissing made peculiarly his own. Sex, class and money -- the three poles around which all his work revolves.

The term Neo-romanticism is synonymous with post-Romanticism or late Romanticism. This movement embraces the period from about 1880 to about 1910. It is considered a reaction on naturalism. The naturalist stresses external observation; the neo-romanticist adds feeling, internal observation. Many books of authors from this period tend to be philosophical and historical. The artists in this period drew their inspiration from artists of the age of romanticism. Important characteristics: longing for perfect love, imaginary paradise, death, history.

In novel, the early leader in the revival of romantic fiction was Robert Louis Stevenson, who, by the charm of his personality, the elegance of his style, the cheerfulness of his view of life, no less than his gallant and adventurous novels, achieved a remarkable vogue before the close of the 19th.c. In the late 19th.c and early 20th.c, the novel exhibited two tendencies, each of which in some measure represents a reaction from Victorianism. The first of these tendencies – illustrated by such diverse writers as Stevenson, Kipling, Conrad – was motivated by the desire to restore the spirit of romance to the novel. The methods of these writers differed widely, but they were allied in their attempt to escape from the limitations of a drab and stuffy realism by seeking material or modes that would invest their novels with the aura of romance.

Aestheticism or the Aesthetic Movement, was a European phenomenon during the latter 19th c.that had its chief headquarters in France. In opposition to the dominance of scientific thinking, and in challenge to the widespread indifference or hostility of the middle-class society of their time to any art that was not useful or did not teach moral values, French writers developed the view that a work of art is the supreme value among human products precisely because it its self-sufficient and has no use or moral aim outside its own being. The end of a work of art is simply to exist in its formal perfection; that is to be beautiful and to be contemplated as an end in itself. A motto of A. became the phrase – art for art’s sake.

The views of French Aestheticism were introduced into Victorian England by Walther Parter, with his emphasis on high artifice and stylistic subtlety, his recommendation to crown one’s life with exquisite sensations, and his advocacy of the supreme value of beauty and of ‘the love of art for its own sake’. The artistic and moral views of A. were also expressed by Algernon Charles Swinburne and by English writers of the 1890s such as Oscar Wilde, Arthur Symons and Lionel Johnson. The influence of ideas stressed in a. – especially the view of the ‘autonomy’ (self-sufficiency) of a work of art, the emphasis on craft and artistry and the concept of a poem or novel as an end in itself and as investor with ‘intrinsic’ values – has been important in the writings of prominent 20th c. authors such as Yeats, Eliot, Hulme.

The related developments we can find in Decadance. The doctrine of A. also supported views and values that developed into a movement called ‘the Decadence’. The term (not regarded by its exponents as derogatory) was based on qualities attributed to the literature of Hellenistic Greece in the last three centuries B.C. and to Roman lit after the death of the Emperor Augustus in 14 A.D. These literatures were said to possess the high refinement and subtle beauties of a culture and art that have passed their healthy beginning, but manifest a special savor of beginning decay.Such was also held to be the state of European civilization, especially in France, as it approached the end of the 19th.c.

The second major tendency in the novel is that illustrated by such conspicuous writers as Galsworthy and Wells. These writers regarded the novel as a social document, and in some cases as a medium for propaganda, their aim was to represent the life of their time, not only accurately by critically. For the social novel a distinguished tradition had been established by such 19th.c writers as George Eliot, Charles Dickens. But the novelists of the turn of the century differed from their literary ancestors in the severity of their criticism and the depth of their antipathy to the age in which they had grown up and which they chose to depict. On the whole, the social novel won a wider audience in this period and proved a more characteristic form than any of the varieties of romanticism attempted.

Список литературы. Alexander M. A History of English Literature, Palgrave Macmillan, 2000

Thornley G.C., Roberts G. An outline of English Literature, Longman, 2002

Drabble M., Stringer J. Oxford Concise Companion to English Literature

Интернет ресурсы. http://andromeda.rutgers.edu.~j

www.britishliterature.com

http://vos.ucsb.edu

Http://englishlit.about.com/arts/englishlit

www.spartacus.schoonet.co.uk/drama.htm

 

Тема 11. The Twentieth century literature. Ends and beginnings: 1901-1919. Edwardian realists. Science fiction of H.Wells.

Проблемные вопросы лекции. Galsworthy’s social criticism in his major novels. Galsworthy’s realism in the cycle of novels The Forsyte Saga. Fact and fantasy in the major H.Wells’s science fiction novels.

Тезисы лекций. John Galsworthy (1867-1933)was an English novelist, playwright, poet, winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1932.He became known for his portrayal of the British upper middle class and for his social satire. His most famous work is The Forsyte Saga (1906-1921), a series of six novels which trace the story of a typically English upper-class family from Victorian days to the nineteen-twenties – presenting their reactions to great events which, in effect, spell the doom of all they stand for, including WWI, the growth of Socialism, the general strike of 1926.Galsworthy was a representative of the literary tradition, which has regarded the novel as an instrument of social debate. He believed that it was the duty of an artist to examine a problem, but not to provide a solution. Before starting his career as a writer, Galsworthy read widely the works of Kipling, Zola, Turgenev, Tolstoy, and Flaubert.

His first two collections of tales were published under the pen name of John Sinjohn, and the editions were soon withdrawn by the self-critical beginner. Not until he was thirty-seven did he begin his real authorship by publishing the novel The Island Pharisees (1904), and two years later appeared The Man of Property, the origin of his fame and at the same time of his monumental chief work, The Forsyte Saga. In Galsworthy's satire against the Island Pharisees, the fundamental feature that was to mark all his subsequent works was already apparent. The Island Pharisees was the first book which came out under his own name. Galsworthy wrote it originally in the first person, then in the third, and revised it again. Its final version was not finished until 1908. He was critical of the old standards – the philistinism, decadence, dullness, atrophy of feeling which characterized the so-called ‘ruling class’.

The book deals with an English gentleman's having stayed abroad long enough to forget his conventional sphere of thoughts and feelings; he criticizes the national surroundings severely, and in doing so he is assisted by a Belgian vagabond, who casually makes his acquaintance. The pharisaical egoism of England's ruling classes, the subject of Galsworthy's debut, remained his program for the future, only specialized in his particular works. He never tired of fighting against all that seemed narrow and harsh in the national character, and the persistence of his attacks on social evil indicates his strong impressions and deeply wounded feeling of justice.
With the death of his father in 1904, Galsworthy became financially independent. In 1905 he married Ada Person Cooper. Galsworthy had lived in secret with her for ten years, because he did not want to cause distress to his father, who would not approve the relationship. Ada Person inspired many of Galsworthy's female characters. Her previous unhappy marriage with Galsworthy's cousin formed the basis for the novel The Man of Property (1906), which began the novel sequence to be known as The Forsyte Saga and established Galsworthy's reputation as a major British writer.

The first appearance of the Forsyte family was in one of stories in Man of Devon (1901). The saga follows the lives of three generations of the British middle-class before 1914. Soames Forsyte was modelled after Arthur Galsworthy, the writer's cousin. Soames is married to beautiful and rebellious Irene. The incident, when Soames rapes his wife, was supposedly based on Ada Galsworthy's experience with her former husband Arthur. In the second volume, In Chancery (1920), Irene and Soames divorce, she marries Jolyon Forsyte, Soames's cousin, and bears a son, Jon. Soames and his second wife, Annette Lamotte, have a daughter, Fleur. In the third volume, To Let (1921), Fleur and Jon fall in love, but Jon refuses to marry her. The second part of Forsyte chronicles, containing The White Monkey (1924), The Silver Spoon (1926), Swan Song (1928), starts on an October afternoon of 1922 and closes in 1926. 'A Silent Wooing' and 'Passers By', the two interludes, came out in 1927. Galsworthy returned again to the world of the Forsyte books in 1931 with a further collection of stories, On Forsyte Change.

It seems uncertain if in the beginning Galsworthy thought of a sequel to that first Forsyte novel, which is a masterpiece of an energetic, firm, and independent account of human nature. At any rate it was not until fifteen years later that he again took up his Forsytes, and at this time the effects of the World War had radically changed the perspective. In all English fiction, class has played an important part, from the time of Pamela, the novelist has shown us individual virtue or passion breaking its boundaries. The promotion of a character from a lower to a higher class by discovery of birth or by marriage has been a romantic motive constantly in use. G. however, takes the fact of class much more seriously and scientifically.

The Forsytes are a business family, representative of the prosperous middle class, with its mind, its heart and its conscience rooted in the idea of individual ownership.With the Forsyte type he now aimed at the upper middle class, the rich businessmen, a group not yet having reached real gentility, but striving with its sympathies and instincts toward the well-known ideal of the gentleman of rigid, imperturbable, and imposing correctness. These people are particularly on their guard against dangerous feelings, a fact which, however, does not exclude accidental lapses, when passion intrudes upon their life, and liberty claims its rights in a world of property instincts.

The contradictory power to money is Beauty, here, it represented by Irene, who does not like to live with The Man of Property; in his bitter indignation at this, Soames Forsyte becomes almost a tragic figure. To Galsworthy Soames thus becomes one of the last representatives of static old England. There was no deception in him, we are told; he had his trying ways, but he was genuine. The sober prosaic respectability is in this manner duly honoured in Galsworthy's realism, and this has been pointed out as the essential factor in his judgment of human nature. As time passed, and the weary, cynical weakness grew more and more visibly modern, the chronicler found that several traits which under other circumstances had been little appreciated, perhaps really constituted the secret of the British power of resistance. On the whole, Galsworthy's later novels are permeated with a patriotic feeling of self-defence that appears also in his descriptions of the home and studies of nature. Even these last-mentioned are rendered with a more tender and more anxious poetry, with the feeling of protecting something precious yet already shadowed by certain loss. It may be old chambers where people have established themselves as if to remain there forever. Or it may be an English garden park, where the September sun is shining beautifully on bronze-coloured beech leaves and centenary hedges of yew.

 

Galsworthy’s Realism. He is a realist, both minute and delicate. He relieves the effect of detail, however, by giving it symbolic meaning, spiritual or social, beyond the fact itself. Even various ‘properties’ of his characters serve to suggest or distinguish qualities or attitudes too delicate for phrasing. In this faculty G. suggests the artistry of Sterne and the spiritual penetration of Maeterlinck. On the whole, G’s view of mankind is pessimistic. In spite of ideal and heroic examples, his general conclusion is the inadequacy of man to cope with the problems of a complex social order, his impotence before the bonds of tradition and convention.

Herbert George Wells’s novels are among the classics of science-fiction. They were marked by a pessimistic view to scientific progress. Later Wells's romantic and enthusiastic conception of technology turned more doubtful. His bitter side is seen early in the novel BOON (1915), which was a parody of Henry James.

He was born in Bromley, Kent. His father was a shopkeeper and a professional cricketer until he broke his leg. In his early childhood Wells developed love for literature. His mother served from time to time as a housekeeper at the nearby estate of Uppark, and young Wells studied books in the library secretly. When his father's business failed, Wells was apprenticed like his brothers to a draper. He spent the years between 1880 and 1883 in Windsor and Southsea, and later recorded them in KIPPS (1905). In the story Arthur Kipps is raised by his aunt and uncle. Kipps is also apprenticed to a draper. After learning that he has been left a fortune, Kipps enters the upper-class society, which Wells describes with sharp social criticism.

As a novelist Wells made his debut with The Time Machine, a parody of English class division. The narrator is Hillyer, who discusses with his friends about theories of time travel. A week later their host has an incredible story to tell - he has returned from far future. The Time Traveler had found two people: the Eloi, weak and little, who live above ground in a seemingly Edenic paradise, and the Morlocks, bestial creatures that live below ground, who eat the Eloi. The Traveler's beautiful friend Weena is killed, he flees into the far future, where he encounters "crab-like creatures" and things "like a huge white butterfly", that have taken over the planet. In the year 30,000,000 he finds lichens, blood-red sea and a creature with tentacles. He returns horrified back to the present. Much of the realistic atmosphere of the story was achieved by carefully studied technical details. The basic principles of the machine contained materials regarding time as the fourth dimension - years later Albert Einstein published his theory of the four dimensional continuum of space-time.

The Invisible Man was a Faustian story of a scientist who has tampered with nature in pursuit of superhuman powers, and The War of the Worlds, a novel of an invasion of Martians. The story appeared at a time when Schiaparell's discovery of Martian "canals" Percival Lowell's book Mars (1895) arose speculations that there could be life on the Red Planet. The narrator is an unnamed "philosophical writer" who tells about events that happened six years earlier. Martian cylinders land on earth outside London and the invaders, who have a "roundish bulk with tentacles" start to vaporize humans. The Martians build walking tripods which ruin towns. Panic spreads, London is evacuated. Martians release poisonous black smoke. However, Martians are slain "by the humblest things that God, in his wisdom, has put on this earth."

Список литературы. Михальская Н.П. История английской литературы. М., «Академия», 2007

Alexander M. A History of English Literature, Palgrave Macmillan, 2000

Thornley G.C., Roberts G. An outline of English Literature, Longman, 2002

Drabble M., Stringer J. Oxford Concise Companion to English Literature.

Carter R., MacRae J., The Penguin Guide to English Literature: Britain and Ireland.




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