The ambiguous term neologism.
The coining of new words generally arises first of all with the need to designate new concepts resulting from the development of science and also with the need to express nuances of meaning called forth by a deeper understanding of the nature of the phenomenon in question. It may also be the result of a search for a more economical, brief and compact form of utterance which proves to be a more expressive means of communicating the idea.
The first type of newly coined words (designate newborn concepts) - terminological coinages. The second type ( words, coined because their creators seek expressive utterance) - stylistic coinages.
New words are mainly coined according to the productive models for word-building in the given language. But the new words of the literary-bookish type we are dealing with in this chapter may sometimes be built with the help of affixes and by other means which have gone out of use or which are in the process of dying out.
Among new coinages of a literary-bookish type must be mentioned a considerable layer of words appearing in the publicistic style, mainly in newspaper articles and magazines and also in the newspaper style — mostly in newspaper headlines: blimp — a name coined by Low, the well-known English cartoonist. The name was coined to designate an English colonel famous for his conceit, brutality, ultra-conservatism. This word gave birth to a derivative, viz. Blimpish. Other examples are ‘backlash’ (îòâå÷àòü óäàðîì çà óäàð, ïîëèòèêà «áåëîãî áóìåðàíãà», íåîæèäàííîå ñèëüíîå äâèæåíèå íàçàä, âûçûâàòü îòðèöàòåëüíóþ ðåàêöèþ) (in ‘backlash policy’) and its opposite ‘front lash’.
Throughout the history of the English literary language, scholars have expressed their opposition to three main lines of innovation in the vocabulary: firstly, to borrowings which they considered objectionable because of their irregularity; secondly, to the revival of archaic words; and thirdly, because the process of creation of new words was too rapid for the literary language to assimilate.
The fate of literary coinages mainly depends on the number of rival synonyms already existing in the vocabulary of the language. It also depends on the shade of meaning the new coinage may convey to the mind of the reader.
Many coinages disappear entirely from the language, leaving no mark of their even brief existence. Other literary neologisms leave traces in the vocabulary because they are fixed in the literature of their time. In other words, new literary-bookish coinages will always leave traces in the language, inasmuch as they appear in writing. This is not the case with colloquial coinages. These, as we shall see later, are spontaneous, and due to their linguistic nature, cannot be fixed unless special care is taken by specialists to preserve them.
Most of the literary-bookish coinages are built by means of affixation and word compounding.
Semantic word-building, that is, giving an old word a new meaning, is rarely employed by writers who coin new words for journalistic purposes. It is too slow and imperceptible in its growth to produce any kind of sensational effect.
Conversion, derivation and change of meaning may be registered as means by which literary-bookish coinages are formed. These three means of word-building are mostly used to coin new terms in which new meanings are imposed on old words. Among coinages of this kind the word accessories maybe mentioned. It has now become an important word in the vocabulary of feminine fashion. It means gloves, shoes and handbag, though jewellery and other ornaments are sometimes included. Mary Reifer’s “Dictionary of New Words” notes a verb to accessorize meaning ‘to provide with dress accessories, such as handbag, gloves, shoes, etc.’
The new meaning co-exists with the old ones. In other words, new meanings imposed on old words form one system in which old and new meanings are ranged in a dictionary according to their rate of frequency or to some other underlying principle. But there are cases when new meanings imposed on old words drive out old meanings: t hus, the word admire, which, as in Latin, first meant ‘to feel or express surprise or astonishment’, has today lost its primary meaning and now has acquired a new one which, however, still contains a shade of the old, viz. ‘to regard with wonder and approval, esteem or affection, to delight in’.
Word-building by means of affixation is still predominant in coining new words. Examples are: ‘ orbiter—‘a spacecraft designed to orbit a celestial body’; lander— ‘a spacecraft designed to land on such a body’; missileer—‘a person skilled in ‘missilery, or in the launching and control of missiles’; fruitologist and wreckologist which were used in a letter to the editor of The Times from a person living in Australia.
Among new creations those with the suffix -ize seem to be the most frequent. The suffix -ize gives a strong shade of bookishness to new words: ‘detribalized (Africans)’; ‘accessorize’; ‘moisturize’; ‘villagize’.
Some affixes are themselves literary in character and naturally carry this property to derivatives formed with them. Thus, for example, the prefix anti - has given us a number of new words which are gradually becoming recognizable as facts of the English vocabulary, e.g.: ’anti-world’, ‘anti-emotion’, ‘anti-hero’, ‘anti-trend’ and the like.
The suffix -dom has also developed a new meaning, as in ‘gangdom’, ‘freckledom’, ‘musicdom’ where the suffix is used with the most general meaning of collectivity.
The suffix -ee has been given new life: ‘interrogatee’, ‘autobiographee’ (“...the pseudo-autobiographer has swallowed ‘the autobiographee whole.” New Statesman, Nov.29,1963); ‘enrollee’ (“Each enrollee is given a booklet filled with advice and suggestions, and attends the lecture...” New York Times Magazine,Jan. 26, 1964); ‘omittee’, ‘askee’ (“That’s a bad habit, asking a question and not waiting for an answer, but it’s not always bad for the askee.” - Rex Stout, “Too many clients”)
The suffix -ship has also developed a new shade of meaning as in the coinages: ‘showmanship’ ( èñêóññòâî îðãàíèçàöèè ïóáëè÷íûõ ðàçâëå÷åíèé, óìåòü ïîêàçàòü òîâàð ëèöîì), ‘brinkmanship’ (áàëàíñèðîâàíèå íà ãðàíè âîéíû), ‘lifemanship’ (øóòë. óìåíèå æèòü, äîêàçàòü ñâîå ïðåâîñõîäñòâî)’, ‘lipmanship’, mistressmanship’, ‘supermanship’, ‘one-up manship’ (óìåíèå äîáèòüñÿ ïðåèìóùåñòâà), etc.
The word man is gradually growing first’ into a half-suffix and finally into part of the complex suffix -manship with the approximate meaning ‘the ability to do something better than another person’.
Among voguish suffixes which colour new coinages with a shade of bookishness is the suffix -ese, the dictionary definition of which is “1) belonging to a city or country as inhabitant (inhabitants) or language, e. g. Genoese, Chinese; 2) pertaining to a particular writer (of style or diction), e. g. Johnsonese, journalese.” Modern examples are: ‘Daily-Telegraphese’, ‘ New Yorkese’; recently a new word has appeared— ‘TV-ese’.
There is still another means of word-building in modern English - that is the blending of two words into one by curtailing the end of the first component or the beginning of the second. Examples are numerous: musicomedy (music+comedy); cinemactress (cinema+actress); avigation (aviation+navigation); and the already recognized blends like smog (smoke+ fog); chortle(ôûðêàíüå îò ñìåõà, ñäàâëåííûé ñìåõ) (chuckle+snort); galumph (triumph+gallop) (both occur in Humpty Dumpty’s poem in Lewis Carroll’s “Through the Looking Glass”). A rockoon (rocket+balloon) is ‘a rocket designed to be launched from a balloon’. Such words are called blends.
One more way to create a new meaning - injecting into well-known, commonly-used words with clear-cut concrete meanings, a meaning that the word did not have before. This is generally due to the combinative power of the word. Particularly productive is the adjective. It tends to acquire an emotive meaning alongside its logical meaning, as, for instance, terrible, awful, dramatic, top. The result is that an adjective of this kind becomes an intensifier: it merely indicates the degree of the positive or negative quality of the concept embodied in the word that follows.
Another type of neologism is the nonce-word, i.e. a word coined to suit one particular occasion. Such words will always remain neologisms, i.e. will never lose their novelty: “Let me say in the beginning that even if I wanted to avoid Texas I could not, for I am wived in Texas, and mother-in-lawed, and uncled, and aunted, and cousined within an inch of my life.” (J. Steinbeck)
“You’re the bestest good one—she said—the most bestest good one in the world.” (H. E. Bates)
“That was masterly. Or should one say mistressly. ” (Huxley)
In modern English new words are also coined by a means which is very productive in technical literature and therefore is mostly found in scientific style, viz. by contractions (ñîêðàùåíèå, ñòÿæåíèå) and abbreviations: TRUD (= time remaining until dive), LOX (= 1. liquid ox ygen explosive, 2. liquid oxygen) and GOX (= gaseous oxygen), laser (= light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation); Unesco (United Nations Education and Science Organization); jeep (GP=General Purpose car).
The stylistic effect achieved by newly-coined words generally rests on the ability of the mind to perceive novelty at the background of the familiar.The sharper the contrast, the more obvious the effect.
A stylistic effect may also be achieved by the skilful interplay of a long-established meaning and one just being introduced into the language.
Thus the word deliver in the United States has acquired the meaning ‘to carry out or fulfill an expectation; make good’ (Barnhart Dictionary).
Novelty is not a device. And still the novelty can be used for stylistic purposes provided that the requirements for an SD indicated earlier are observed: newly-minted words are especially striking. They check the easy flow of verbal sequences and force our mind to take in the referential meaning. The aesthetic effect in this case will be equal to zero if the neologism designates a new notion resulting from scientific and technical investigations. The intellectual will suppress the emotional. However, coinages which aim at introducing additional meanings as a result of an aesthetic re-evaluation of the given concept may perform the function of a stylistic device.
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