It is difficult to say whether this transformation is lexical or grammatical – it is both. Its lexical aspects imply adding words, word combinations or even the whole sentences or their parts when: there is a strong necessity to make some explanations of transcribed words, describe the notions which have no names in TL, add the words implied but not expressed in the structure of phrases, etc. However, in all these cases the structure of a sentence in involved, therefore the transformation is looked at as grammatical one. Sometimes grammatical reasons to add new words appear. It happens when meaning is expressed grammatically in the original text while there is no way to express it grammatically in translation, e.g. in English the articles are used to differentiate between the author and his creation:
“…the jewel of his collection – an Israels… ” or “…Madame Lamotte, who was still in front of the Meissonier ”. (J. Galsworthy).
In Ukrainian in both sentences we have to add the word “ картина ”:
“…перлина його колекції – картина Ісраелса… ” and “… мадам Лямот, яка все ще стояла перед картиною Месоньє ”.
In another example the existence of a special form of possessive case in English allows using the names in the absolute possessive construction: “Of course, I found George’s and Harris’s eighteen times over…” (Jerome K.Jerome). In Ukrainian the corresponding grammatical form is that of genitive case, the use of which would create an undesirable ambiguity: “… знаходив Джорджа та Гаріса ”. It is appropriate to add the word “щітка” implied in the sentence: “ Звичайно ж, щітки Джорджа та Гаріса траплялись мені разів з вісімнадцять, якщо не більше ”.
When using the transformation of addition one should be very careful to add only the elements which really have to be added:
McDermot spoke briefly into the telephone, then waited again.
Макдермот віддав коротке розпорядження по телефону і знову став чекати.
Certain semantic components remain formally unexpressed in English word combinations, particularly in structure “Noun + Noun” which is very typical of English:
pay claim (pay offer) — вимога (пропозиція) підвищити заробітну плату
wage strike — страйк з вимогою підвищення заробітної плати
gun license — посвідчення на право носити зброю
oil countries — країни-експортери нафти
electricity cut — обмеження подачі електроенергії
labor spy — шпигун, який слідкує за робітниками (а не робітничий шпигун)
veneer machine — машина для виробництва фанери (а не фанерна машина)
strike ballot — голосування з нагоди оголошення страйку
round robin — петиція з підписами по колу (щоб не можна було виявити ініціаторів)
The same formal non-expression of some semantic components in surface structure of word combinations is also observed in the word combinations like “Adjective + Noun”, especially in the case, when they have terminological character:
solid engine — двигун на твердому паливі (а не твердий двигун)
logical computer — обчислювач, який виконує логічні операції (а не логічний обчислювач)
the Un-American Committee — Комісія з розслідування антиамериканської діяльності (а не антиамериканська комісія).
Sometimes addition is stipulated by purely stylistic considerations:
She never used scent, and she had always thought it rather fast, but Eau de Cologne was so refreshing (S. Maugham, Before the Party).
Вона ніколи не пахтилася, вважаючи це ознакою легковажності, але одеколон — інша справа, він так приємно освіжає.
Causative constructions with the verbs to have, to get also require adding words in translation:
I can’t have her getting her death of cold and then not being fit for work.
Я не можу допустити, щоб вона злягла від застуди і потім знову не змогла працювати.
I had him read t he script last night.
Учора ввечері я примусив його прочитати (домігся того, щоб він прочитав) сценарій.
Trinomial constructions to find (to see) oneself doing smth. are also translated with the help of Object added:
She found herself humming as she crossed the street.
Вона раптом помітила, що тихенько наспівує, переходячи вулицю.
Both grammatical and lexical transformations not infrequently require inserting additional elements, or visa versa, omitting them. Therefore omission and addition often go parallel with other types of grammatical transformations, more often with replacements of parts of speech. Insertion of additional words is stipulated by a number of reasons: differences in sentence structure and the fact that more compressed English sentences require more expanded expression of thought in Ukrainian. The lack of a corresponding word or lexical-semantic variant of a given word is also a reason for inserting additional words in translation:
Weathermen said here today that typhoon June, earlier thought to be heading toward Japan, would probably miss these already battered islands. (“Morning Star”)
Японські метеорологи повідомили сьогодні, що ураган „Джун“, який, як уважали раніше, прямує на Японію, можливо, обмине ці багатостраждальні острови.
Complex Nominative + Infinitive with two omitted elements (which was...) is unfolded into a subordinate clause plus introductory sentences:... який, як вважали раніше, прямує ... So, the differences in the sentence structure required addition in translation.
In the next sentence addition is caused by the lack of a noun equal to the word “ conservationists ”in Ukrainian:
The actions of Congress and of North Carolina and Tennessee statesmen, aided by-gifts of wise conservationists have set this land aside as Great Smoky National Park. (“National Geographic”)
Ця місцевість на березі річки Смокі-Хіл була перетворена в Національний парк завдяки зусиллям Конгресу та державних діячів штатів Північна Кароліна та Теннессі, а також завдяки пожертвам любителів природи, які розуміють усю важливість її збереження.
The word “ conservationists ” was rendered by two words: любителів природи; from the compatibility considerations the adjective “ wise ” is translated by the participial construction, by introducing additional words “ які розуміють усю важливість її збереження. The addition was made on the basis of a broad context.
Theme; idea
The theme of a literary work is the represented aspect of life; an interaction of human characters under certain circumstances such as some social or psychological conflict; war and peace, race discrimination, a clash of ideologies. The basic theme may alternate with rival themes/by-themes and their relationship may be very complex.
The idea of a literary work is the underlying thought and emotional attitude transmitted to the reader by the whole poetic structure of the literary text. All the layers of poetic structure (direct, metaphorical and symbolic) pertain to the expression of the idea. Idea can also be defined as the underlying meaning of the story rarely interpreted in only one way.
Plot; elements of the plot.
The plot is the narrative and thematic development of the story—that is, what happens and what these events mean. Plot is a series of events that depend on one another, not a sequence of unrelated episodes.
The plot traditionally moves through five distinct stages:
Exposition------Complication (Rising Action)------Crisis (Climax)------Falling action------Resolution (Denouement).
EXPOSITION is the beginning section in which the author provides the necessary background information, sets the scene, establishes the situation, dates the action, introduces the characters. The exposition may be accomplished in a single sentence or paragraph, or, in the case of some novels, occupy an entire chapter or more.
COMPLICATION breaks the existing balance and introduces the underlying or inciting conflict. The conflict is then developed gradually and intensified.
CRISIS is that moment at which the plot reaches its point of greatest emotional intensity; it is the turning point of the plot, directly precipitating its resolution.
FALLING ACTION: Once the crisis, or turning point, has been reached, the tension subsides and the plot moves toward its appointed conclusion.
RESOLUTION: The final section of the plot which records the outcome of the conflict and establishes some new equilibrium or stability (however tentative and momentary).
Characters
The term character applies to any individual in a literary work. For purposes of analysis, characters in fiction are customarily described by 1) their relationship to the plot, 2) by the degree of development they are given by the author, and 3) by whether or not they undergo significant character change.
1) The major, or central character of the plot is the protagonist; his opponent, the character against whom the protagonist struggles or contends, is the antagonist. The protagonist is the essential character without whom there would be no plot. It is the protagonist's fate (the conflict or problem) on which the attention of the reader is focused. The terms protagonist and antagonist donot imply a judgement about the moral worth. For this purpose they are more suitable terms as hero/heroine, or villain, which connote a degree of moral correctness. Most stories also have minor characters that provide support and illuminate the protagonist.
2) Flat characters represent a single characteristic, trait, or idea, or a very limited number of such qualities. They are also referred to as type characters, as one-dimensional characters, or, when they are distorted to create humour, as caricatures. These characters and their deeds are always predictable and never vary for they are not changed by circumstance.
Round characters embody a number of qualities and traits, and are complex multidimensional characters of considerable intellectual and emotional depth who have the capacity to grow and change. Major characters in fiction are usually round characters. As there exist two major types of characters, so there are two modes of their representation – typification in order to personify vices, virtues, or philosophical and religious positions and individualization of a character which has evolved into a main feature of the genre of the novel.
3) Dynamic characters exhibit a capacity to change; static characters do not. The degree of character change varies widely: in some works, the development is so subtle that it may go almost unnoticed; in others, it is sufficiently drastic and profound to cause a reorganization of the character's personality or system of values. Change in character may come slowly over many pages and chapters, or it may take place with a dramatic suddenness that surprises. Dynamic characters include the protagonists in most novels. Static characters leave the plot as they entered it, largely untouched by the events that have taken place. Although static characters tend to be minor ones, this is not always the case.
Methods of Characterization Basic techniques:
- direct method of telling, which relies on exposition and direct commentary by the author (a method preferred by many older fiction writers).
pCharacterization through the use of names.
pCharacterization through appearance.
pCharacterization by the author.
- indirect, dramatic method of showing, which involves the author's stepping aside to allow the characters to reveal themselves directly through their dialogue and their actions.
pCharacterization through dialogue.
pCharacterization through action.
Telling and showing are not mutually exclusive, however. Most authors employ a combination of the two.
Point of view
The term point of view,or narrative perspective, characterizes the way in which a text presents persons, events, and settings. The major types of point of view are:
· third-person point of view - omniscient (unspecified narrator presents the action from an all-knowing, God-like perspective) or limited (the story from the third person with a knowledge of what the main character thinks);
· first-person point of view (observations of a character who narrates the story),
· second-person point of view.
Setting: literary time and space
Setting denotes the location, historical period, and social surroundings in which the action of a text develops, the background, atmosphere or environment in which characters live and move. Thus it may be physical, social, spatial and temporal. Depending on the way of its presentation a setting may be simple or elaborate. According to the number and quality of details it gives a setting can be complex, minimal or inferred.
Setting is called on to perform a number of desired functions: (1) to provide background for the action; (2) as an antagonist (to establish conflict); (3) as a means of creating appropriate atmosphere; (4) as a means of revealing character (metaphor); (5) as a means of reinforcing theme to illustrate or clarify, (6) even as a way to distract the reader.
These functions must not, however, be thought of as mutually exclusive. In many works of fiction, setting can and does perform a number of different functions simultaneously.
Microcomponents of the literary text structure
Novelists also use a number of minor devices to make their novels rich in meaning and rewarding to the reader, including diction, tropes and figures of speech
Diction is stipulated by the word choice and usage (for example, formal vs. informal), as determined by considerations of audience and purpose.
Tropes and figures of speech are specifically patterned – semantically, lexically, syntactically, phonologically - word sequences that constitute a literary text. Trope is an expressions with a transferable meaning (e.g. metaphor), which can be understood as a substitute for a denotatively suitable word. That is to say, trope is a semantic substitution. Tropes produce imagery, the collection of descriptive details that appeal to the senses and emotions of the reader by creating a sense of real experience. Through imagery the writer attempts to embody in images all abstractions and generalizations about character and meaning. There can be tactile imagery (sense of touch); aural imagery (sense of hearing); olfactory imagery (sense of smell); visual imagery (sense of sight), gustatory imagery (sense of taste).
Figure of speech is a striking or unusual configuration of words or phrases (e.g.: repetition, parallelism; parenthesis, ellipsis, zeugma).
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