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THEORY AND METHODS OF SOCIOLOGY

Some social scientists emphasize research methods attempt to reduce quantitative and qualitative aspects of social phenomena into numerical variables. Questionnaires, field-based data collection, archival database information and laboratory-based data collections are some of the measurement techniques used. It is noted the importance of measurement and analysis, focusing on the (difficult to achieve) goal of objective research or statistical hypothesis testing. A mathematical model uses mathematical language to describe a system. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed 'mathematical modelling' (also modeling). Eykhoff (1974) defined a mathematical model as 'a representation of the essential aspects of an existing system (or a system to be constructed) which presents knowledge of that system in usable form'. Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to dynamical systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game theoretic models.

These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a variety of abstract structures. The system is a set of interacting or interdependent entities, real or abstract, forming an integrated whole. The concept of an integrated whole can also be stated in terms of a system embodying a set of relationships which are differentiated from relationships of the set to other elements, and from relationships between an element of the set and elements not a part of the relational regime. Dynamical system modeled as a mathematical formalization has fixed "rule" which describes the time dependence of a point's position in its ambient space. Small changes in the state of the system correspond to small changes in the numbers. The evolution rule of the dynamical system is a fixed rule that describes what future states follow from the current state. The rule is deterministic: for a given time interval only one future state follows from the current state.

Other social scientists emphasize the subjective nature of research. These writers share social theory perspectives that include various types of the following:

• critical theory is the examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across social sciences and humanities disciplines
• dialectical materialism is the philosophy of Karl Marx, which he formulated by taking the dialectic of Hegel and joining it to the Materialism of Feuerbach.
• feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, or philosophical discourse, it aims to understand the nature of gender inequality.
• phronetic social science is an approach to the study of social – including political and economic – phenomena based on a contemporary interpretation of the classical Greek concept phronesis, variously translated as practical judgment, common sense, or prudence.
• Marxist theories, such as revolutionary theory and class theory, cover work in philosophy which is strongly influenced by Karl Marx's materialist approach to theory or which is written by Marxists.
• post-colonial theory are reactions to the cultural legacy of colonialism.
• postmodernism refer to a point of departure for works of literature, drama, architecture, cinema, and design, as well as in marketing and business and in the interpretation of history, law, culture and religion in the late 20th century.
• rational choice theory is a framework for understanding and often formally modeling social and economic behavior.
• social constructionism is knowledge that consider how social phenomena develop in social contexts.
• structuralism is an approach to the human sciences that attempts to analyze a specific field (for instance, mythology) as a complex system of interrelated parts.
• structural functionalism is a sociological paradigm which addresses what social functions various elements of the social system perform in regard to the entire system.

Other fringe social scientists delve in alternative nature of research. These writers share social theory perspectives that include various types of the following: