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Types of Lexical Meaning

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- referential,

- emotive,

- stylistic

Referential meaning, also referred to as logical or denotative, has direct reference to things or phenomena of reality, naming abstract notions and processes as well. There are primary and secondary referential meanings.

 

Emotive meaning does not have direct reference to things or phenomena of the reality, but to the feelings and emotions, associated with them. It is a connotative meaning created by connotations raised in the mind of the speaker or reader. It is inherent in a definite group of words even when they are taken out of context.

 

Words contain an element of emotive evaluation as part of the connotational meaning; e.g. a hovel denotes ‘a small house or cottage’ and besides implies that it is a miserable dwelling place, dirty, in bad repair and in general unpleasant to live in. When examining synonyms large, big, tremendous and like, love, worship or words such as girl, girlie; dear, dearie we cannot fail to observe the difference in the emotive charge of the members of these sets. The emotive charge of the words tremendous, worship and girlie is heavier than that of the words large, like and girl. This does not depend on the “feeling” of the individual speaker but is true for all speakers of English.

 

Stylistic meaning is based on stylistic stratification of the English vocabulary and is formed by stylistic connotations. Stylistic and emotive meanings are closely connected,

e.g. slang words mug, phiz are undoubtedly more expressive than their neutral counterpart face and have a pejorative emotive meaning.

Stylistically words can be roughly subdivided into literary, neutral and colloquial layers.

The greater part of the literаrу layer of Modern English vocabulary are words of general use, possessing no specific stylistic reference and known as neutral words. Against the background of neutral words we can distinguish two major subgroups — standard colloquial words and literary or bookish words. This may be best illustrated by comparing words almost identical in their denotational meaning, e. g., ‘ parent — father — dad’. In comparison with the word father which is stylistically neutral, dad stands out as colloquial and parent is felt as bookish.

 

2. Causes of Lexical Transformations are as follows:

 

Cause1 - vision of objects of reality can be seen in different aspects by speakers of different l-ges,

e.g. snow-drop – пролісок, підсніжник

hot milk with skin on it – гаряче молоко з пінкою

The city is built on the terraces rising from the lake – Місто побудоване на терасах, що спускаються до озера

Cross fingers! = Тримай кулак!

This factor presents certain difficulty when the words are used figuratively,

e.g. Instant history, like instant coffee, can sometimes be remarkably palatable… - Современная история, как и (такой же современный продукт, как) растворимый кофе, иногда бывает удивительно приятна …

Due to this factor the meanings of some words in E are wider and less differentiated, and correspond to two or more correlated words in U/R,

e.g. Blue – синій, блакитний

Purple – пурпурний (purple robes of Roman emperors), фіолетовий (purple ink), синій (purple shades)

 

Cause 2 - Divergences in the Semantic Structure

Most often the primary meanings of words coincide while their derivative meanings do not, i.e. similar meanings of E and U/R words may differ in some components, or semes.

This is usually reflected in dictionaries where more than one U/R equivalent is listed under the same meaning of the E word,

In this case the semantic volume of the E word is wider.

Mellow can apply to 1. fruit -- стиглий, м’який, солодкий

2. wine -- витримане, старе, приємне на смак

3. soil -- родючий, м’який, жирний

4. voice -- м’який, густий, соковитий

5. man -- подобрівший, м’який, веселий, говірливий, напідпитку

 

Cause 3. Different Collocability (“Valency”)

Lexical collocability is the aptness of a word to appear in various combinations. This aptness of correlated words in different l-ges is not identical. Words which are habitually collocated constitute a cliché, and the tr-tor has to seek similar clichés or traditional collocations in the TL,

e.g. bad language – “мат”,

a bad mistake – груба помилка,

Different collocability often calls for lexical and grammatical transformations in tr-n,

e.g. the most controversial Prime Minister can’t be translated as “найбільш суперечливий прем’єр-міністр”, but as “прем’єр-міністр, який викликає найбільш суперечливі відгуки”

Switzerland’s neutral faith ought not to be in doubt – Вірність Швейцарії нейтралітету не підлягає сумніву.

 

3. There are 7 types of lexical transformations (after Я. Рецкер. «Tеория перевода и переводческая практика»):

  1. differentiation of meaning,
  2. specification of meaning,
  3. generalization of meaning,
  4. sense expanding,
  5. antonymic substitution,
  6. total changes,
  7. compensation for the losses in another place or by other means.

1. Differentiation of meaning is often used parallelly with specification of meaning,

e.g. Affection is the best substitute for love. (affection – прихильність, симпатія, любов)

Probably the best translation for “affection” in this context will be «прихильність»

2. Specification of meaning is always parallel with differentiation of meaning,

e.g. Have you had your meal? (поснідали, пообідали, повечеряли,....?) The translation here depends on the context.

mount ” – кінь, осел, мул і т.д. (під сідлом)

Christ on his mount – Христос на осляті;

the picture “Napoleon on his mount visiting the plague stricken in the streets of Jaffa” should be rendered as „Наполеон верхи на верблюді....”

3. Generalization of meaning is far less frequent in translating E words into U/R as E words usually have broader meanings than U/R ones,

e.g. “a young man of 6 feet and 2 inches”may be rendered as „молодий чоловік доволі високий на зріст (із зростом вище середнього)”;

“No Hanging Bill” (a bill discussed in the British Parliament) should be rendered as „законопроект про скасування смертної кари” as it implies denial of capital punishment in general.

4. Sense expanding is the substitution of a vocabulary meaning by a contextual one in translation. It also affects the form of a word. Thus, an object may be substituted by a process, etc. In translation of verbal word combinations of the type cause ---- process ----- consequence the process may be substituted by its cause or consequence, the cause may be substituted bt the consequence or process, etc.,

e.g. I don’t think she’s living here at the moment. The bed wasn’t slept in. – Я думаю, она не живет здесь в настоящее время. Ее постель не смята.

At last he found his voice. – Он наконец-то обрел дар речи. (here, the meaning in R. is more general)

5. Antonymic substitution is an extreme point of sense expanding. Usually it is followed be the change of an affirmative construction into negative or vice versa,

e.g. The woman at the other end asked him to hang on -.... не класти слухавку (трубку)

e.g. The adoption of the defensive does not necessarily mean weakness or inferiority of our troops. –

Переход к обороне не обязательно означает слабость наших сил или превосходство войск противника.

In E. there is a number of words which are translated antonymically even in the dictionaries, for example, the verb “keep” with different prepositions:

e.g. Shut the window to keep the cold air out.

Keep out of reach of children.

6-7. Total changes and compensation for the losses in another place or by other means. The method of total changes may include both sense expanding and antonymic substitution, but in this case there are no common components in the SL and TL. It is effectively used in translation of phraseological units,

e.g. How do you do. - Добрий день (ранок і т.д.). Вітаю! Welcome! Ласкаво прошу (просимо). Never mind. – Нічого, не турбуйтеся. Don’t mention. – Нема за що. Forget it! – Не зважайте. Не варто про це згадувати. Well done! – Браво! Молодець! Help yourself – Пригощайтеся, etc.

Compensation is a substitution of an original element which is impossible to render by an element of another level or in another place,

e.g. In J. Galsworthy’s play “Burbery” denotes a waterproof coat produced by Burbery. This word was not translated, but compensated for by the word „макінтош”, more familiar to U. reader.




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