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Types of connotation

1. connotation of degree and intensity - astonish, adore

2. connotation of duration - glare, glance, gaze, shiver, shudder

3. emotive connotation - lonely, glare, stare, gaze

4. connotation of cause - shiver, shudder

5. connotation of manner - smile, laugh, giggle; stare

6. connotation of attendant features - pretty is associated with small delicate features and a fresh complexion; handsome is associated with a tall man; beautiful is associated with classical features and perfect figure

7. stylistic connotation - snap (dialectal), bite (colloquial); abandon (bookish), depart (formal), go away (neutral)

8. evaluative connotation - celebrated, notorious

LABORATORY WORK # 3

There are three closely connected aspects of semantic changes: causes, nature and results.

The causes of semantic changes may be divided into 2 groups: extra-linguistic and linguistic

By extra-linguistic causes we mean different changes in the life of the speech community, changes in economic and social structure, changes in ideas, scientific concepts, way of life and other spheres of human activities as reflected in word meaning. Meaning changes sometimes in the course of time, where in many cases the sound form of the word is retained but the meaning of the word is changed. The word car goes back to Latin carrus which meant "a four-wheeled wagon" but now that other means of transport are used it denotes "a motor-car", "a railway carriage" (in the USA), "that portion of an airship or balloon which is intended to carry personnel, cargo or equipment".

By linguistic causes we mean factors acting within the language system, the development of new meaning through the influence of other words mostly of synonyms. Words time and tide used to be synonyms. Then tide took on its more limited application to the periodically shifting waters, and time alone is used in the general sense.

A necessary condition of any semantic change is some connection, some association between the old meaning and the new one. The nature of semantic changes is based on transference of meaning. There are 2 types of transference depending on 2 types of logical association.

1. Transference based on similarity (metaphor). Metaphor is a transfer of name based on the association of similarity. It presents a method of description which likens one thing to another by referring to it as if it were some other one. Ex.: a cunning person is referred to as a fox, hand - a pointer of a clock, the leg of the table, warm and cold voices - denote certain qualities of human voices, a head of a cabbage

2. Transference based on contiguity (metonymy). Metonymy is a shift of names between things that are known to be in some way or other connected in reality. The word book is derived from the name of a tree on which inscriptions were scratched. Mod E book < OE boc “beech”, tongue - the organ of speech in the meaning "language", the House - Parliament, the bar - the lawyer

Results of semantic changes can be observed in the changes of the denotational and connotational meanings of the word.