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Difficulties arise in tracing the history of management. Some see it (by definition) as a late modern (in the sense of late modernity) conceptualization. On those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history, only harbingers (such as stewards). Others, however, detect management-like-thought back to Sumerian traders and to the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt. Slave-owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting/motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises, given their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically. However, innovations such as the spread of Arabic numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494) provided tools for management assessment, planning and control.
Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and recording before the industrial revolution, it made sense for most owners of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with growing size and complexity of organizations, the split between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties or groups of shareholders) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more common.
Answer the questions:
1. What problems did slave-owners face through the centuries?
2. Do any difficulties arise in tracing the history?
3. What innovations provided tools for management assessment, planning and control?
4. Who are day-to-day managers?
Вариант V.
I. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык. Определите в каждом из них видовременную форму и залог глагола.
1. The prime minister is often invited to various important events in different cities.
2. The project of construction of a new skyscraper has been prepared on time.
3. There are only a few holidays which are celebrated all over the world.
4. International trade is always controlled by governments.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на различные значения слов IT, THAT, ONE.
1. Doctors say that we shouldn’t eat carbohydrates and proteins if we want to lose weight.
2. Working people in Russia have longer vacation than one that Americans annually have.
3. Psychologists are sure that the choice of profession of every person mainly depends on his or her own type of temperament.
4. It’s impossible to imagine our life without electricity nowadays, since not a single second passes when we don’t use any device which runs on electricity.
III. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на различные значения глаголов TO BE, TO HAVE, TO DO.
1. Any commercial organization has to sustain the competitive ability to be a successful one.
2. He does like his profession as he is sure that it’s his cup of tea.
3. According to the schedule tomorrow I will be to account to the director for what I have achieved this year.
4. All I really want to know is how to get as well-paid job in a town.
IV. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.
5. It’s accepted by everyone Internet is one of the most progressive sources of information.
6. The sportsman realizes he was hardly ever able to get the first prize at that competition.
7. We suppose the price reduction is expected by the end of the year.
8. The accountant understands their bank won’t be able to avoid bankruptcy in crisis conditions.
V. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива.
9. Only yesterday we happened to get to know that we had won a prize.
10. Our creative director doesn’t seem to want to do anything I suggest.
11. To support heavy industry in our country it’s necessary to invest a large sum of money in it.
12. I have lots of ideas in my head, but not so many years to make them true.
VI. Прочитайте и письменно переведите следующий текст. Письменно ответьте на вопросы после текста.
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