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According to the a) position of the active organ of speech against the point of articulation consonants may be: 1. Labial, 2.Lingual, 3.Glottal.
1. Labial consonants are made by the lips. Bilabial consonants are produced when both lips are active. They are: the English [p, b, m, w]. Labio-dental consonants are articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth. They are the English [f, v]
2. Lingual consonants are classified into forelingual, mediolingual and backlingual.
Forelingual consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue.. According to the work of tip of the tongue they may be: apical, if the tip of the tongue is active as in the case of the English [t, d, s, z, ∫, ʒ, θ, ð, dʒ, t∫, n, l]; dorsal, if the blade of the tongue takes part in the articulation, the tip being passive and lowered as in the case of the Russian [т, т’, д, д’, н, н’, с, с’, з, з’, ч’, ц]; in English there are no dorsal consonants; cacuminal, if the tip of the tongue is at the back part of the teeth ridge, but a depression is formed in the blade of the tongue as in the case of the English [r].
According to the b) place of obstruction forelingual consonants may be: interdental, dental, alveolar, post-alveolar, palato-alveolar. Interdental consonants or interdentals are made with the tip of the tongue projected between the teeth: the English [θ, ð]. There are no interdental consonants in Russian. Dental consonants are produced with the blade of the tongue against the upper teeth: there are no dentals in English. Alveolar consonants or alveolars are articulated with the tip against the upper teeth ridge: the English [t, d, s, z, n, l]. Post-alveolar consonants or post-alveolars are made when the tip or the blade of the tongue is against the back part of the teeth ridge or just behind it: the English [r]. Palato-alveolar consonants or palato-alveolars are made with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the teeth ridge and the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate, thus having two places of articulation or foci (front secondary focus); both narrowings are flat: the English [∫, ʒ, t∫, dʒ].
Mediolingual consonants are produced with the front part of the tongue. They are always palatal. Palatal consonants or palatals are made with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate: the English [j].
Backlingual consonants are also called velar, because they are produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate (Lat. Velum). They are: the English [k, g, ŋ].
3. The glottal consonant [h] is articulated in the glottis. There are no glottal consonants in Russian.
In the system of English consonants there could be found oppositions based on the active organ of speech and the place of obstruction. [pæn] – [tæn] pan – tan (bilabial – forelingual), [wai] – [lai] why – lie (bilabial – forelingual), [weil] – [jeil] weil – yale (bilabial – mediolingual).
In the English consonantal system there is a problem of affricates, i.e. their phonological status and their number. The question is: 1. Are the English [t∫, dʒ] sounds monophonemic entities or biphonemic combinations (sequences, clusters)? 2. If they are monophonemic, how many phonemes of the same kind exist in the system of English consonants, or, in other words, can such clusters as [tr, dr], [ts, dz] and [tθ, dð] be considered affricates?
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