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ГРАММАТИКА АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА

Для студентов I курса ДО и ЗФО факультета ИЯ и МК

ТВЕРЬ 2008

THE VERB "TO HAVE"

The verb 'to have' may be used as a notional verb and as an auxiliary verb. As an notional verb it means possession:;

e.g. / have abook.

In interrogative sentences the predicate is placed before the subject:

e.g. Haveyou a book?

Negative sentences with the verb 'to have' are formed with the negation 'not' especially when the attribute to the noun is expressed by a numeral or the indefinite pronoun 'any':

e.g. I haven 't (have not) a raincoat. I have not three books, I have only two,

I have not any map of England.

Negative sentences with the verb '’to have’¹ are very often formed with the help of the negation no. In this case the article is omitted:

e.g. I have no raincoat.

In colloquial speech the verb 'to have' is very often replaced by 'have got':

e.g. / have got a map of England.

The verb 'to have' is often used in:

1) set expressions, e.g. to have dinner, to have a smoke, to have a swim etc.

2) the modal expression to have + infinitive, which is rendered in Russian by 'приходится, должен,
вынужден'. In these cases the auxiliary '^:do"' is necessary to form negative and interrogative sentences:

e.g. Do you have to walk all the way home? I don ‘ t haveto walk, I take a tram. Do you have supper at home? I don't, have supper at a cafe.

POSSESSIVE CASE

Nouns have two case forms in Modern English: the common case (student, girl) and the possessive case (student's, girl's).

The use of the possessive case is as a rule restricted to nouns denoting living beings.

The possessive case is also used with nouns denoting time, distance, space and with some adverbs of time derived from nouns:

e.g. Have you got today's newspaper? They walked a mile's distance.

PRONOUNS SOME, ANY, NONE

The indefinite pronouns 'some' and 'any' are used with countable and uncountable nouns, meaning:

'Some' is usually used in affirmative sentences, 'any' - in interrogative and negative: e.g. Are there any oaks in thepark? Yes, there are some oaks in thepark.

'Some' and not 'any' is used in special and general questions expressing request or proposal: e.g. Do you want some water? Will you give me some milk, mum?

'Any' may be used in affirmative sentences with the meaning of "любой": e.g. you You may take any pencil.

The pronoun 'none' is used in negative sentences in place of nouns: e.g. I have a lot of friends in Moscow, but she hasnone.

SENTENCES WITH THE INTRODUCTORY 'THERE'

Sentences with the introductory 'there' are used when it is necessary to point out the existence of a thing in a definite place:

e.g. There is a clock on the desk. - На столе часы.

There are books in the bookcase. - В шкафу книги. There is some water in the glass. - В стакане вода.

The noun which is the subject of the sentence is usually used with the indefinite article, if it is a countable noun in the singular, or with no article, if it is a countable noun in the plural, or an uncountable noun. The noun which serves as an adverbial modifier of place is always used with the definite article.

In sentence without the introductory 'there' the speaker draws the attention of the listener not to the existence of a thing but to its place;

e.g. The clock is on the table. - Часы на столе. cf. There is a clock on the table. - На столе часы.

If a sentence with the introductory 'there' has several subjects, the verb is used in the same number as the first of the subjects:

e.g. There is a sofa, a table and five chairs in the room. There are three boys and one girl in their family.

MODAL VERBS

Modal verbs are used to show the speaker's attitude towards the action or state expressed by the infinitive. They are called defective because theey lack forms.

CAN

The verb 'can' expresses:

1) ability or possibility: e.g. My friend can play chess. She cannot come tonight.

2) informal permission: e.g. Can I take your book? You can. (You can't. - prohibition.
NOTE: Mind the spelling of the negative form: cannot.

For the past tense the form 'could' is used: e.g. He couldn't understand anything.

MAY

The verb 'may' expresses:

1) permission: e.g. You may come in the evening. May I ask you a question? - You may. May I smoke here?
- You may not (mustn 't).

2) supposition: e.g. He may know it. He may have come already.

MUST

The verb 'must' expresses:

1} obligation, necessity: e.g. You must go to the laboratory now. Must we read the text again? - No, you needn 't.

2) supposition: e.g. He must be at home now. He must have been at home then.

The verb 'must' in the negative form means prohibition, e.g. You mustn't smoke in the room.

For the past tense 'must' is used in indirect speech only, e.g. Mary said she must go and see her aunt.

In all other cases for the past and future tenses the equivalent 'have to' is used, e.g. They had to take exams. Did they have to take exams? They didn 't have to take exams.

NEED

The verb 'need' expresses necessity. It is mostly used in its negative form.

NOTE: Do not mix up the modal verb 'need' with a notional verb 'need' which is usually used with a direct object: e.g. Do you need a new raincoat? (a notional verb). You needn't go shopping today, you may do it tomorrow (modal verb).

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

In direct speech the exact words of the speaker are given, in indirect speech the speaker reports in his own words what someone else has said before.

Direct speech: Indirect speech:

Dr. Sandford says: "I must pay much Dr. Sandford says that he must pay money for the house.",

much money for the house".

When we transform direct speech into indirect the personal pronoun is changed according to the sense. The conjunction that is not used in colloquial speech: e.g. Dr. Sandford says he must pay a lot of money for the house.

GENERAL QUESTIONS IN INDIRECT SPEECH
Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Doctor Sandford asks Betty: Doctor Sandford asks Betty if

"Does anybody want to see me?" anybody wants to see him.

General questions are introduced by the conjunction 'if' or 'whether'. Indirect questions have no inversion: the predicate follows the subject.

SPECIAL QUESTIONS IN INDIRECT SPEECH

Special questions in indirect speech become object clauses. The word order of a question is changed into the word order of an affirmative sentence with the subject preceding the predicate.

The intonation is also changed: the words introducing a direct question are pronounced with the falling tone: e.g. He asks me: "Where do your parents live?"

In indirect questions there is usually no pause between the principal and the subordinate clauses: e.g. He asks me where my parents live.

If there is a pause, the principal сclause is pronounced with the rising tone: e.g. He asks me where my parents live.

Imperative sentences in indirect speech undergo the following changes: the verb to say is replaced by the verb to tell or to order in case of commands, and by the verb to ask in case of request: e.g. He says: "Do it at once". He tells me to do it at once. She says: "Switch off the radio, please". She asks to switch off the radio.

DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

Most adjectives have degrees of comparison: the comparative degree and the superlative degree.

Monosyllabic adjectives usually form their comparatives and superlatives by the inflexions -er, -est: e.g. short- shorter - (the) shortest.

Polysyllabic adjectives form their degrees of comparison with the help of more and most: e.g. careful -more careful - (the) most careful.

The following polysyllabic adjectives, however, generally form their comparatives and superlatives inflexionally:

1) adjectives of two syllables, ending in -y, -ow, -er, -le,

e.g. narrow - narrower - (the) narrowest

happy - happier - (the) happiest

clever - cleverer - (the) cleverest

.simple - simpler - (the) simplest;

2) adjectives of two syllables which have the stress on the last syllable: e.g. complete - completes - (the) completest

Some adjectives have irregular forms of degrees of comparison,
e.g. good better (the) best

bad worse (the) worst

many, much more (the) most

little less (the) least

far farther (the) farthest

further furthest

old older (the)oldest

elder (the) eldest

' Little ' in the sense of "small" has no degree of comparison. In the comparative and superlative degree smaller and smallest are used. e.g. I have a little room, he has a smaller room. "They have the smallest room. BUT: I have little time. She has less time.

'Farther, further' have been so confused that usage now makes no distinction between them. Some careful writers, however, like to reserve farther for 'greater distance', and further for 'more' or 'additional'¹, e.g. A further point in his favour is that he has travelled farther than we have.

Modern usage is to restrict elder and eldest to family relationships and to use older and oldes t as the general comparative and superlative, e.g.:

(a) My elder brother is now in Canada.

(b) Elizabeth was the eldest of the three sisters.

(c) Elizabeth was the oldest girl in her class.

(d) St. Andrew's is an older church than All Saints'.

DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

1. If the adverbs is a one-syllable word the comparative degree is formed by adding -er and the superlative
by adding -est:, e.g. fast -faster -fastest, hard - harder - hardest,

2. Adverbs ending in -ly form the comparative by means of 'more' and the superlative by means of 'most',
e.g. wisely - more wisely - most wisely.

3. Some adverbs have irregular forms of comparison: well - better - best, badly - worse - worst, much -
more - most, little - less - least.

THE PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE

The Present Indefinite is used to express:

1) actions permanently characterizing the subject, habitual actions: e.g. The sun rises early in summer. Do you
speak English?

2) actions going on at the present moment with verbs not used in the Continuous forms: e.g. I see George in the
street. I hear somebody knock.

3) a future action with verbs of motion such as to go, to come, to leave etc.: e.g. The train leaves at 10 tomorrow.

THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

The Present Continuous is formed by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle 1 of the notional verb.

The Present Continuous is used to denote:

1) an action going on at the present moment orat the present period of time: e.g. Somebody is knocking at the door. Please, open it. He is writing a new book now.

NOTE: The Present Indefinite not the Present Continuous is used to denote actions going on at the present moment when the fact is important and not the process: e.g. Why do you look at me as if you had never seen me?

The Present Continuous can be used to denote a certain state or quality peculiar to a person at a given moment, e.g. "You are being nervous" - he said.

2) an action which will take place in the near future due to a previous arrangement: e.g. We are learning on
Sunday. Are you dining out tonight?

3) an action generally characterizing the person denoted by the subject (with the adverbs always, ever,
constantly). This characteristic is emotionally colored; e.g. She is always grumbling. She is constantly thinking of
you.

THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

The Present Perfect is formed by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb 'to have'" and Participle II of the notional verb, e.g. He has already come. Have you done it yet?

1. The Present Perfect denotes a completed past action connected with the present time in its result: e.g. /
have opened the window. (The window is open).

a) The Present Perfect is often used with the adverbs just, yet, already, lately, or late: e.g. / have just
written to him.

b) It is also used with the adverbs denoting a period of time which is not over: today, tonight, this week,
this month etc. (if the action does not refer to some definite moment within this period): e.g. Have you listened to
the news tonight?

BUT: Did you get up early today?

NOTE: In special question beginning with when only the Past Indefinite is used: e.g. When did you see him last?

2. The Present Perfect denotes an action which began in the past, has been going on up to the present or
is still going on with verbs not used in the continuous forms. In this case either the starting point of the action is indicated or the whole period of duration.

'Since' is used to indicate the starting point of the action. If the conjunction since introduces a clause, the verb in this clause is in the Past Indefinite: e.g. She has been very busy since she came back to town. I haven't seen her since 1966.

The preposition 'for' is used to denote the whole period of duration: e.g. / have known him for many years. -Я знаю его много лет.

THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

The Present Perfect Continuous is formed by means of the Present Perfect of the auxiliary verb 'to be' and Participle I of the notional verb: e.g. You have been working for an hour. Have you been working for an hour? You have not been working for an hour.

1. The Present Perfect Continuous is used to express an action which began in the past, has been going on
up to the moment of speaking or is still going on: e.g.

1) Your eyes are red, you have been crying; They're laughing because he's been telling them his
anecdotes. In these sentences the action of the verb in the Present Perfect Continuous does not continue at the
moment of speaking.

2) / have been teaching at school for twenty years. She has been listening to the tapes for a long time. In
these sentences the action of the verb in the Present Perfect Continuous continues into the moment of speaking.

2. The use of the Present Perfect Continuous is parallel to the use of the Present Perfect (2). However there
are some differences between them.

a) The Present Perfect is more common with verbs which cannot have the continuous form: e.g. I've known
the lady all her life. I've loved her since she was a child. "We've been at the conference for two hours," he said.

b) The Present Perfect is preferable in negative sentences: e.g. She hasn 't written to me for a year. I
haven ‘t7 read the paper for the last two days.

c) The Present Perfect Continuous is used when the speaker emphasizes the progress of an action: e.g.
We 've been watching this film for an hour

Compare also the sentences: I' ve been learning Russian since we last met and have made some progress in it. I' ve learnt all the irregular verbs since we last met (and now I know them all).

THE PAST INDEFINITE TENCETENSE

The Past Indefinite Tense is used to express an action performed in the past. The time of the action may be indicated by adverbials of past time, such as 'yesterday', 'a week ago', 'last year etc. The Past Indefinite is used to denote:

1) a succession of past actions, e.g. He threw down his spade and entered the house.

2) a single action performed in the past, e.g. I saw this film a week ago.

3) repeated actions in the past, e.g. He made an entry in his diary every night.

NOTE: repeated actions are often expressed by used to + infinitive and would + infinitive. Used to is more colloquial and would is more literary: e.g. When the children came from school they used togo and play in the giant’s garden. When asked such questions he would smile.

THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

The Past Continuous is formed by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb 'to be' and Participle I of the notional verb.

The Past Continuous Tense is used to express:

1) an action which was in progress at some definite moment. This moment of the past is marked by an
adverbial phrase or subordinate clause of time with the verb in the Past Indefinite: e.g. They were working in the
garden at that time yesterday. He was speaking tothe dean when we entered the hall.

2) an action covering a whole period of time in the past, usually with some emphasis on the progress of
the action; e.g. / was reading the whole day yesterday. It was raining the whole day yesterday.

THE FUTURE INDEFINITE TENSE

The Future Indefinite is used to express a future action. It is formed by means of the auxiliary verbs shall and will and theinfinitive of the notional verb. 'Shall' is used for the first person singular and plural. 'Will' is used for the second and the third person singular and plural: e.g. /I shall do it.

The Future Indefinite is not used in adverbial clauses of time and condition. The Present Indefinite is used instead of the Future after the conjunctions 'when', 'till' ('until'), ' before', 'as soon as', 'if': e.g. If the weather is fine we shall go fora walk. I 'llI’ll ring him up when I come home.

In object clauses introduced by 'if' and 'when' the Future Indefinite is used, e.g. I'm not sure if he will be free.

THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

The Future Continuous Tense is formed with the help of the verb 'to be' in the Future Indefinite Tense and Participle I of the notional verb.

1. The future tense of the continuous aspect denotes an action going on at a given future moment. The
future moment may be fixed by an adverbial of definite time: e.g. I'll be doing my lessons at 7 o'clock, or by
another action, e.g. / shall becleaning up when you come with mythings.

2. Sometimes the Future Continuous tense is used to express an action filling up a whole period of time in
the future, but only when the action is considered in its progress: I shall be packing all day tomorrow.

3. The Future Continuous is used to express an action which is supposed, planned or anticipated in the
future: "Will you be going to a dance tonight?"he asked.

SEQUENCE OF TENSES

If the verb of the principal clause is in one of the past tenses, the verb of the subordinate clause must also be used in one of the past tenses.

The Future in the Past

The Future in the Past is formed by means of the auxiliary verb should for the first person, would for the rest of the persons and the infinitive without 'to'.

The Future in the Past Tense is used to express an action viewed from a past moment: e.g. He knew that we should help him.

Everybody understood that she would not tell them aword.

I told my friend I should go to a holiday centre during my vacation.

The Past Perfect Tense

The Past Perfect Tense is formed by means of the verb 'to have' in the Past Indefinite and Participle II of the notional verb.

1. The Past Perfect Tenseexpresses an action accomplished before a given past moment. The past
moment may be indicated by an adverbial expression: by four o'clock, by that time, etc., or by another action in the
past: e.g. By the end of the week we had already done half the work.

We had gone far when wesuddenly saw that huge cloud.

2. The Past Indefinite is sometimes used instead of the Past Perfect inclauses introduced by 'after', 'when',
'as soon as': e.g. He stood motionless after she disappeared.

3. The Past Prefect is also used to denote an action begun before a given past moment and still going on at
that moment.

In subordinate clauses introduced by since the Past Indefinite is used: e.g. She toldme she had been ill since she came back from the seaside.

Indirect Speech

In changing from direct speech into indirect speech it is necessary to use the rules of the Sequence of Tenses that have been mentioned. The verb to say, which is used to introduce direct speech, is usually replaced by the verb to tell in indirect speech if a person is mentioned, e.g. He said to her "I don't know anything about it". He told her (that) he did not know anything about it. - She said: "Is the boy late today?" She asked if the boy was late today.

THE PASSIVE VOICEPASSIVE VOICE

The Passive Voice is formed by means of the appropriate tense form of the auxiliary verb 'to be' and the Second Participle of the notional verb, e.g. The article is translated.

The Passive Voice is usually used:

a) when the active subject is unknown or when the speaker is more interested in the verb activity itself
than in the active subject. In such cases the by-object is omitted, e.g. These books mustn't be taken away;

b) sometimes the active subject must be mentioned to complete the sense of the sentence, then it is
introduced by the preposition 'by', e.g. This novel was written by Jack London.

There are more passive constructions in English than in Russian., In English an indirect object of a
transitive verb and a prepositional object of an intransitive verb can be used as subjects in the passive,,
e.g. They gave him a book. He was given a book.

They spoke well of Mary. Mary was well spoken of.

The adverbs 'always', 'often', 'sometimes', 'just', 'already' etc. are placed after the first auxiliary, e.g. The floor is often washed. The floor is just being washed. The floor has just been washed.

THE INFINITIVAL COMPLEX OBJECT

Some English verbs can be used with an infinitival complex object which is expressed by a noun in the common case (or a pronoun in the objective case) followed by the infinitive of a verb. The infinitival complex object is used with:

a) verbs expressing mental activity: to expect, to consider, to know, to suppose, to believe: etc., e.g.
Everybody expected her to marry Pete;

b) verbs expressing wish and emotion: to wish, to want, to desire, to like, to dislike, to love, to hate: e.g. /
dislike you to talk like that. We want Tom to help us;

c) verbs expressing sense perception: to hear, to see, to watch, to feel, to observe, to notice, etc. The
infinitive with these verbs is used without the participle 'to': e.g. / saw Mr. Brown enter the room. I felt blood rush
into my cheeks.

NOTE: with verbs of sense perception Participle I can be used instead оf the infinitive if a process is expressed.

e.g. / hear him singing. We watched her dancing;

d) verbs expressing order and permission: to order, to allow, to have, to let: e.g. / won't have you speak
like it. Let him do it again. He ordered his carriage to be ready.

NOTE: the absence of the participle 'to' when the complex follows the verbs 'have' and 'let';

e) verbs expressing compulsion: to make, to cause, to get: e.g. Light steps made him turn his head.
NOTE: the absence of the participle 'to' when the complex follows the verb 'make'. Notice, however, that in passive sentences with this verb, we use a to-infinitive: e.g. He was made to do it.

THE GERUND

The gerund is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb. It has both noun and verb characteristics: e.g. I'm tired of (what?) rowing. (It functions as a noun). He doesn't like being read to. They accuse him of having set fire to the stable. (As a verb it has voice and tense distinctions).

Sometimes the gerund is preceded by a possessive pronoun or a noun in the possessive case, e.g. I insist on Mary's

her

his

their going there.

our my your

going there.

our my your

This construction functions as a syntactical complex (gerundial complex).

Gerund as Direct Object

a) to the verbs: mind, avoid, put off, need, want, give up, enjoy, like, afford, stop, finish, begin,
e.g. The house needs painting;

b) to the adjectives: busy, worth,
e.g. The book is worth reading.

Gerund as Prepositional Object

a) to the verbs: look forward to, know of, think of, thank for, object to, rely on, insist on, depend on, suspect smb.
of: e.g. Thank you for inviting me;

b) to the adjectives and past participles: be fond of, be good at, be tired of, be proud of, be surprised at, be used to,
be sorry for, be interested in.

Gerund as attribute

to the nouns: method, way, habit, idea: e.g. He was in the habit of havinga walk every evening.

Gerund as Adverbial Modifier
of time used in the following constructions:

before doing smth.

after

on

e.g. On coming home he saw his friend there.
of manner:

without doing smth.

by

e.g. She answered without turning her head.

She startled her father by bursting into tears.

SOME FACTS OF ENGLISH

'Either... or' a pair of words acting as a single co-ordinate conjunction. The following points should be noted:

1. If the alternative subjects are singular, the verb is singular also. e.g. Either the boy or the girl is to
blame.

2. If both subject are plural, the verb is plural also, e.g. Either the boys or the girls are to blame.

3. If one of the subjects is singular and the other plural, the verb is plural, e.g. Either Tommy or the boys
who live next door are to blame. Either the boys who livenext door or Tommy are to blame.

4. If both subjects are singular and each requires a different form of the verb, the verb agrees with the
subject immediately preceding it, e.g. Either you or I am to blame. Either you or he is to blame. Either he or you
are to blame.

These remarks apply equally to 'neither... nor' and 'not only... but also'.

' Neither... nor' a pair of words acting as a single co-ordinate conjunction. The use of the first requires the use of the second, e.g.

Wrong: Neither Jack or Frank was to blame.

Right: Neither Jack nor Frank was to blame.

Whether a singular or plural verb is required is discussed under 'either... or'.

When not takes the place of neither, it is followed by or, not nоr, e.g. The book was not in the study or in the bedroom. We do, however, use nor in such sentences as: The book was not in the study, nor was it in the bedroom.

'Differ with, from' Be careful to use the correct preposition. If we do not agree with a person, we differ with him; but our opinions differ from his.

'Sometimes, sometime, some time' The following examples may help to show the different shades of meaning:

a) / meet himsometimes in London.
Sometimes I am happy, sometimes I'm sad.

b) / mustattend to it sometime.

I am nearly always at home, so please call in and see me sometime.

c) This book will take me some time to finish.

There are some times when play is harder than work.

The word 'sometime' has the additional meaning of 'former' or 'formerly': e.g. Mr. William Harrison, sometime chairman of Wessex County Council, has died at the age of eighty-two.

QUESTIONS WE SOMETIMES ASK

1. Question: What is the English for "Он уже ездил в Париж?"

Answer: The only correct translation is: He has already been to Paris. It means that he is already here. The sentence "He has gone to Paris" means now or on his way there.

2. Question: Grammar books say that a planned future action can be expressed by either the Present
Continuous Tense or the Present Indefinite Tense. What is the difference, if any?

Answer: We use the Present Continuous Tense mainly when speaking about social arrangements: e.g. I'm meeting my friend for lunch tomorrow. We are dining out tonight. We use the Present Indefinite withtime-tables

for trains, planes, buses or ships and also when planning a program for journey: e.g. The train leaves at 5 p.m. I leave London on Monday, the 16-th. I catch the train for Leeds the next day.

3. Question: Which is preferable 'shall' or 'will' with the 1-st person in the Future Indefinite Tense?
Answer: 'Shall' appears to be slowly disappearing from modern spoken English. People will always

understand you if you use 'will' with 'I' and 'we'.

4. Question: Which is correct: "She was talking over the phone for a quarter of an hour" or "She talked
over the phone for a quarter of an hour"?

Answer: The latter. The following "unwritten rule" may be helpful: never use the Past Continuous form with 'for'.

5. Question: Which tense form (Continuous or Indefinite) would be correct to use at the beginning of the
following paragraph: Maggy sat (or was sitting) in her small room. It was growing dark.

Answer: Both forms are perfectly correct. But the continuous form is often used as a stylistic device in sentences beginning a new paragraph.

6. Question: Which tense (Past Indefinite or Present Perfect) is used in questions beginning with 'where'?
Answer: Both. Examples: 1) Where have you put the dictionary? I can't find it. (The speaker wants to know

where the thing is now). 2) Where did you buy this lovely bag? (The speaker wants to know where the thing was before).

СИСТЕМА АНГЛИЙСКИХ ВРЕМЕННЫХ ФОРМ

THE ARTICLE

I. The article is the form-word of the noun and serves to specify it. There are three articles in Modern
English: the indefinite article, the definite article and the zero article.

II. Сравните употребление неопределенного и определенного арт иклей:

Примечание. Прилагательные не всегда безразличны к артиклям. Следующие из них тяготеют к артиклю the:

whole (family)
the central (problem)

only (excuse)

У пражнение 1. Укажите значение артиклей в следующих предложениях:

1. Give me a red pencil. 2, Here's the red pencil you've asked for. 3. Her father was an artist. 4. The artist wants me to sit for him. 5. The sky was cloudless. 6. Jury Gagarin was the first spaceman. 7. The telephone was invented in the 19-th century. 8. Through the window he saw a woman. The woman was selling cakes.

III. Отсутствие артикля перед существительными грамматически значимо, поэтому в английской грамматике существует понятие нулевого артикля. Нулевой артикль используется:

а) с существительными во множественном числе в тех же случаях, которые требуют
неопределенного артикля для существительного в единственном числе, например: Не bought books and
magazines in the shop /какие-то книги и журналы, неизвестные собеседнику или читателю/. Once there were
big trees opposite this house /деревья, впервые упомянутые/. Our University trains teachers of many subjects
/речь идет о нескольких лицах из ряда однотипных/;

б) перед существительными, обозначающими вещество: I like fish soup. This table is made of wood.
Примечание. На смену нулевому артиклю в таком случае часто приходят местоимения some для

утвердительных предложений и any для отрицательных и вопросительных. Смысл фразы с местоимением и без него разный: Is there any sugar in the bowl? - "Есть ли еще сахар в сахарнице"? Is there sugar in the bowl? - "В сахарнице - сахар?/а не что-то другое/";

в) с существительными, обозначающими отвлеченные понятия в широком понимании: Time is
precious, but truth is more precious than time;

г) после отрицания nо с любыми существительными в любой форме. No red rose in all my garden;

д) перед словами father, mother, uncle, aunt, granny когда в семейном обиходе о старших говорят в
третьем лице, употребляя эти слова вместо имени, - Mother is late;

с) когда существительные служат обращением, например: Pedestrians! Pay attention to traffic lights. Boy, never do it again!

Упражнение 2. Укажите значение артиклей в следующих предложениях:

1. Her face was full of charm. 2. She mixed hot water and soda. 3. I passed her a block of milk chocolate, 4. Dogs
do not like cats. 5. There was an island with two trees on the lake and the trees looked like double sails of a
fishing-boat. 6. He looked at the cars moving below and the clear starry sky. 7. The sun was nearly down. 8. The
snow was blowing so that we could hardly see. 9. There was love between him and the child. 10. Tell Mother all!

11. The mother and the child leaned on the rail of the old sheep-bridge, watching. 12. She read more poems, but
did not like them. 13. You come along too, doctor. 14. The tiger is a rare animal in this country. 15. You can rely
on the heads of these gentlemen.

Article with the Names of Seasons Exercise 1. Use an indefinite article where necessary.

NOTE: Names of seasons are used without articles if they show a certain time of the year: e.g. It was spring.

The indefinite article is used when these nouns are modified by a descriptive attribute: e.g. It was a cold spring.

1. I like... autumn. 2. It was... warm autumn. 3. In... summer I live in the country. 4. In... spring the sky is blue and cloudless. 5.... spring is the season when nature returns to life. 6. It was... hot summer. 7. In... autumn the leaves turn yellow and reddish and fall to the ground. 8. A spell of sunny weather in October is called... Indian Summer. 9.... autumn is the season of mist, of windy and rainy days. 10. It was... frosty winter.

Exercise 2. Use the proper article.

NOTE: The definite article is used when names of seasons are modified by a particularizing attribute or when the

situation makes the nouns definite: e.g. It happened in the winter of 1943.

1.... winter was frosty. 2. In... spring of 1907 I was living in a little cottage in the country. 3. "We had... good

winter. Never had so many fine cold days before," said Tom. 4. The English often grumble about the weather in...

winter. 5.... summer of 1980 was very rainy. 6. It seldom gets unbearably hot in... summer. 7. In England... winter

is not so cold as in Europe. 8. Do you stay in town or do you go to the country in... summer? 9. Does it often

drizzle in... autumn? 10.... winter was unusually cold.

Exercise 3. Use the proper article.

NOTE: When names of seasons are modified by the adjectives early or late, no articles are used: e.g. It was early

spring.

1. In... summer of 1960 we left Kalinin for Kiev. 2. In the North... winters are harder. 3. My favourite season is

... spring, 4. We don't like... late autumn. 5. We had... early winter that year. 6. What indicates the approach of...

spring? 7. What was the weather like in... winter of 1979? 8. It was... cold winter. 9.... autumn is a rainy season

and the weather is mostly dull. 10.... winter has set in at last. 11. It was … lovely autumn. 12. "1 wrote that book in... spring of 1939," said Hilary.

Article with the Names of Meals

Exercise 1. Use an indefinite article where necessary.

NOTE: Names of meals are used without articles: e.g. When did you have breakfast?

The indefinite article is used if the name of a meal is modified by a descriptive attribute: e.g. After a hearty breakfast they went for a walk.

1. When did you have... supper? 2. Is... breakfast ready? 3. Mother is cooking... breakfast. 4. It was... cold lunch. 5. After... breakfast I usually wash up. 6. Ann was gone when he came to... dinner. 7. At two o'clock he likes to have... good hot dinner. 8. There's no one coming for... supper. 9. She ordered... excellent lunch. 10. I shall be back about... tea time.

Exercise 2. Use the proper article.

NOTE: The definite article is used when the nouns are modified by a particularizing attribute or when the situation

makes them definite: e.g. The dinner was a success. The breakfast we had today was very tasty.

1. I must go and look at... dinner. 2. When I got back... breakfast was already on the table. 3. At the end of...

meal we were served with coffee. 4. Mary was putting... supper on a tray to take in into the dining-room. 5....

dinner was to take place in the master's dining-room. 6.... supper we had today could hardly be called... meal. It

was... cup of... tea with... bread and... butter. 7.... dinner is delicious. 8. "... lunch is nice!" said Clare, eating...

sugar at the bottom of her coffee cup, 9.... day of... dinner has come.

Exercise 3. Use the proper article.

1. "Won't you both stay to... dinner?" suggested Sally. 2.... table was laid out for... tea. 3. A young man, from his appearance perhaps a clerk, was eating... modest dinner at Chan's side. 4. The maids told me he hadn't been in to... breakfast or lunch. 5. When he had gone, Chan and Eden ate... cold lunch in the cook-house. 6. Put... supper on a tray and take it into my study. 7. After... lunch they went across the garden to the music room. 8.... dinner was to take place at one o'clock. 9. "Thank you," he said, "for... very pleasant lunch". 10. "I must be off," he said. "I'll be back for... supper". 11. "You are coming to... dinner with me as arranged," said Feilding. 12. Good-bye, and don't forget to get yourself... good dinner. 13. After... tea the others went to bathe.

Article with Geographical Names Exercise 1. Use the article where necessary.

NOTE: Geographical names like all the other proper nouns are used without articles: e.g. England, France, Moscow, London, North America, Central Asia.

Cf. The Soviet Union, the United States, the Ukraine, the Crimea, the Caucasus.

1.... Great Britain owes much to the seas. 2.... England imports about 40 per cent of its food supply. 3. The territories of... Soviet Union lie both in... Europe and... Asia. 4. What is the capital of... Cuba? 5.... Budapest is a beautiful city. 6. When were you in... Crimea? 7. Which oceans wash... United States of America? 8. Is... Ireland an island or a continent? 9. What are the highest mountains in... Europe? 10.... Prague is the capital of... Czechoslovakia.

Exercise 2. Use the article where necessary.

NOTE: Use the definite article with the names of seas, oceans, rivers, lakes, mountain chains, channels and canals, deserts and the four cardinal points.

Names of lakes do not take the article if the word 'lake' is used: cf. The Ontario but lake Ontario.

1.... Ural Mountains divide... Europe and Asiatic sections. 2.... Asiatic section includes... Siberia and... Soviet republics of... Central Asia. 3.... Great Britain includes... England,... Scotland and... Wales. 4.... Thames flows into... North Sea. 5.... Volga-Don Canal connects... Black Sea,... Azov Sea,... Caspian Sea,... White Sea. 6. Show me... English Channel on the map, please. 7.... Lake District is known for its beauty. 8. Have you ever been to... Baikal? 10. There are low mountains in... north and in... west of... British Isles.

Articles with the Nouns Denoting Parts of the DayExercise 1. Use the indefinite article where necessary.

NOTE: The nouns day, night, morning are used without articles:

a) if 'day' and 'morning' mean 'light' and 'night' and 'evening' mean 'darkness', or if they denote a certain part of the day: e.g. Day is meant for work, night for sleep;

b) in the expressions 'by day', 'at night', 'from morning till night': e.g. It is easier to work by day than at night.
The indefinite article is used when the noun is modified by a descriptive attribute. E.g. I spent a sleepless

night.

1. It was... very clear warm evening. 2. It wasn't... night yet but the blinds were down in thedining-room. 3. I came to Warley on... wet September morning, 4. The main entrance was open... all night. 5. I looked at my watch. It was after... midnight. 6. What... lovely morning! 7. It was impossible to stay at home on such... fine morning. 8. At... night they went into the street to see the illumination.9. He worked from... morning till... night. 10. "... warm night," said the voice at my side.

Exercise 2. Use the proper article.

NOTE: The definite article is used when the nouns denoting parts of the day are modified by a particularizing attribute or when the situation makes them definite: e.g. The morning was warm and sunny.

The definite article is also used in the expressions: 'in the morning', 'in the afternoon', 'in the evening', 'in the night', e.g. In the evening we often talk about the events of the day.

1. In... evening we went to the cinema. 2. Duncan spent... evening alone. 3. Then... day came when I had to go back to school 4.... night was still dark. 5.... day was superb. 6. Мог had never seen the rose-garden by... night. 7. We travelled by... day and stayed at hotels every night. 8. Then she began to wake up in... night and speculate about what Bill was doing. 9. It was... sunny evening with a tang of autumn about it. 10. And... night, cold, dark, still - no cars were passing now - kept him company.

Exercise 3. Use the proper article.

NOTE: When the nouns morning and evening are modified by the adjectives 'early' and 'late', no articles are used because these adjectives do not describe the morning or night, but only show the time, e.g. It was early morning when they came back home.

1. He turned in bed and looked towards the window. It was... early morning. 2. It was... horrible day, dark and cold. 3. It was on... day after this that Dinny received a note. 4. It's been... wonderfulevening for me, 5. It was... late evening when he arrived at the house in South Halkin street and rang the bell. 6. "What... lovely evening," she said. 7.... evening approached by the time they met. 8. It was... cold evening with a hint of frost in the air. 9. She made beds and washed up the breakfast things in... morning. 10.... morning passed quickly.

Articles with Nouns in AppositionExercise 1. Use the indefinite article where necessary.

NOTE: Use the indefinite article in the speaker states that the object expressed by the noun in apposition belongs to a certain class: e.g. I want to introduce you tocomrade B., a great friend of mine.

In the plural no article is used: e.g. I want to introduce you to comrade Б. and D., great friends of mine.

1. This is my friend Anthony Brewster,... Englishman. 2. At the end he gave me a smile,... youthful and innocent smile, 3. I lay quite silent, watching his face,... strong and noble face, proud and yet at the moment tender. 4. He had opened another door,... small door in the side wall.5. The school,... grey Gothic building, now showed as a fortress of learning. 6. She was seventeen,... beautiful young creature. 7. Let me introduce you to comrades A. and В, … great friends of mine. 8. Janet and Ann were twins,... pretty blooming girls. 9. There was one flower,... tulip, that grew alone. 10. There was only one picture in the room,... portrait.

Exercise 2. Use the proper article.

NOTE: The definite article is used before an apposition when it refers to a well-known person or work ofart.

But if the person or the work of art is not widely known the indefinite article is used, e.g. Pushkin, the great Russian poet, died in 1837. "Pericles", a comedy by Shakespeare, is hardly ever staged.

1. "War and Peace" was written by Leo Tolstoy,... great Russian writer. 2. Tschaikovsky,... great Russian composer, is known all over the world. 3. Lebedev,... great physicist, was born in 1866. 4. Newton,... famous philosopher, was very absent-minded. 5. Griboyedov,... great Russian dramatist, was killed in 1829. 6. This is Mr. Black,... very beautiful artist. 7. Oblomov,... honest and good-hearted man, is lazy. He is pure inertia. 8. Bunin,...well-known translator of Anglo-American poets, translated many of Byron's, Tennyson's and Longfellow's poems.

Article in Exclamatory SentencesExercise 1. Use the article where necessary.

NOTE: Use the indefinite article with a class noun (countable) in the singular in an exclamatory sentence beginning with the exclamatory what: "What a cold day!" Compare with interrogative sentences where a noun modified by the attributive pronoun what has no article: "What question did he put you? "

1. What... naughty child this boy is!

2. What...book are you reading?

3. What...still, hot, perfect day!

4. What... lovely instrument!

5. What... pretty room!

6. What... mistake has she made?

7. What... fine morning!

8. What... interesting book it is!

9. What... busy woman she is!

10. What... comfortable car this is!

11. What...day is it today?

12. What... difficult text it is!

Exercise 2. Use the article where necessary.

NOTE: Don't use the indefinite article before the countables in the plural and uncountables: " What difficult lessons these are!" "What dark hair your son has!"

1. What... easy texts! 2. What... poem are you learning? 3. What... nonsense he speaks! 4. What... hot milk! 5. What... music is he playing? 6. What... cosy room this is! 7. What... fine eyes! 8. What... cold weather! 9. What... lovely day! 10. What... marks have they got in English?

Article with Proper Nouns

1. Names of persons are used without articles:

Ann looked at Nick and Pete, Kate saw me at the door.

2. Names denoting the whole family are used with the definite article: The Browns are in the dining-room.
They are having dinner with the Joneses.

3. The indefinite article is used to denote one member of the family: James is also a Brown.

4. Names of person modified by a particularizing attribute are used with the definite article: You are not
the Andrew Manson I married.

5. Nouns Denoting military ranks and titles as academician, professor, doctor, lord, etc. followed by
names of persons do not take the article, in such cases only the proper noun is stressed: Professor Petrov lectures
on the Geography of England. Doctor Strong is in the hospital.

Common nouns denoting professions followed by names of persons are used with the definite article. In this case both nouns are stressed. The painter Gainsborough has left many fine pictures.

6. Nouns expressing relationship not followed by a proper noun and the nouns 'nurse', 'cook', 'baby' do not take the article when used by members of the family: - What's the matter with Father? I'd like to see Mother. Nurse will be back at 10 o'clock.

Also with the nouns expressing relationship followed by names of persons: She turned to Aunt Polly. I saw Uncle James yesterday. If other people's relations are meant, the article is used. The son is as tall as the father.

Article with the Names of Months and Days

As a rule names of months and days are used without articles: May is a spring month. She was born inApril. My day off is Friday.

When these nouns are modified by a particularizing attribute the definite article is used: The May of 1949 will always rest in my memory. He came on the Friday when David was born.

Names of days are used with the indefinite article when we mean one of many Mondays, Fridays, etc. Robinson Crusoe found his servant on a Friday.

Names of months are used with the indefinite article when modified by a descriptive attribute: A cold August is a usual thing in our town.

Article with the Names of Hotels, Ships, English and American

Newspapers, Magazines and Clubs

The definite article is used with the names of hotels, ships, etc.: The Astoria, the Morning Star, the Daily World (but Pravda, Figaro). The "Patha" was a local steamer as old as hills. - What was the name of that inn? - The Pig and the Whistle.

Article with the Nouns School. Collage. Bed. Court Prison, Jail. Hospital, Table, Camp, Market These nouns are used without an article when they are treated as abstract nouns and denote thestate or activities associated with these places or the aim they serve. This is usually the case when these nouns are associated with the prepositions at, after, in, to, from: Ann was five when she went to school. Shewent to bed at 11 o'clock. We were only three at table. Mr. Dorrite was in prison many years. He was sent to prison for debt. He was in jail forhaving killed a person in a fight.

But when the nouns 'school', 'college', etc. are used in their original concrete meaning and indicate a particular institution, a concrete building or object, they are used with the definite or indefinite article: "Mine is not a nice school," he said suddenly. He was at the head of the table carving the chicken. Her portrait was on the wall beside the bed. His family lived in the prison. It was a college, as he could see by the gateway.

NOTE: The words 'university' and 'institute' always take the article like other singular class nouns: He'll be back at the University soon.

Article with the Noun ' Town '

The noun 'town' when used with preposition does not take an article:

a) when we mean the nearest town (if we live in the country or the town we live in): e.g. Youcannot go to
town tomorrow;

b) when the noun 'town' is opposed to the noun 'country': He wax not used to country life, having spent
twenty years in town.

Otherwise the noun 'town' is used with the definite or indefinite article: / want to go to the town where I was born.

Article with the Names of Languages

Names of languages when they are not followed by the noun language are used without articles: He knows German.

Note the peculiar use of the definite article.

1. It is a translation from the French (the Spanish, etc.)

2. What is the English for "весна"?

The definite article is used if the noun is modified by a particularizing attribute: The English of America differs from the English of England.

When the noun 'language' is mentioned the definite article is used: the English language, the German language.

Memorize the articles in the following set expressions:

Exercise 1. Insert articles where necessary.

1. The maid, looking to right and left, spoke in... low and hurried voice. 2. He decided that he would not at... present explain to her who he was. 3. All seemed perfectly at their ease, by no means in... hurry. 4. Rosa was well aware that she had never taken... trouble to get to know Annetee. 5. On... other hand, if he was beaten he took it with complete good humour. 6. It's... pity to worry her if she has... talent for uneasiness. 7. They started at... sunrise, and... boy I sent with them didn't come back till next day. 8. All of... sudden, his face had become stony. 9. Dear, dear! It seems only... other day since I took you down to school to Slough. 10. Mr. John could play... violin. 11. He did not take... trouble to turn or raise his eyes at... entry of his visitors. 12. It is... pleasure to describe her. 13. She burnt like... fire from... head to... boot. 14. Caroline whispered to him in... low voice... remarks on... events of the day. 15.... woman I fixed my eye on was... woman who kept... house for me at my cottage. 16. He played... flute. 17. Somebody important must have been arriving from Europe by... air. 18. It's... pleasure to see you. 19. Little Hans worked in his garden from... morning till... night. 20, Andrew did not know what to say, he was at... lass. 21. At... glance she realized he had... fever. 22. He took my towel by... mistake. 23. Dick would stay in... patient's room for... hours. 24. He had been in... prison for two years when he got the news of his father's death. 25. On... whole the play is quite interesting.

Exercise 2. Translate into English,

1. Он всегда говорит очень тихо. 2. На днях я встретил лучшую в мире девушку. 3. Она читает с утра до ночи. 4. Мы всегда заставали его за работой. 5. Он даже не потрудился встретить нас на воюале. 6. Мы уже можем читать Диккенса в оригинале. 7. Мой брат очень хорошо играет па скрипке. 8. Вы по ошибке принесли не тот журнал. 9. Такую интересную книгу перечитать - одно удовольствие. 10. Он ложился спать ровно в одиннадцать часов. 11. Он дал разрешение воспользоваться своей машиной. 12. В целом мы хорошо провели время с нашими друзьями. 13. Он пропустил много занятий и в результате завалил зачет. 14. Они не могли позволить себе служанку, Минни приходилось вести хозяйство самой. 15. Он не мог одолжить мне денег, так как был сам в долгу.

SPELLING RULES

1. i comes before e except after с when the sound is i: e.g. field, pier, siege, belief; but ceiling, deceive,
receipt, conceit.

Exceptions: seize, weird, counterfeit.

2. When you add a suffix to a word ending in y, you change the y_ into i only when a consonant comes
before the y: e.g. tidy - tidies - tidier - tidiest; but stray - strays - strayed - strayer, lady - ladies, story - stories; but
valley - valleys, essay - essays.

Exception: You keep the y when adding -ing to avoid a double i: e.g. tidy - tidying, fly - flying.

3. Words ending in a single e drop the e when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added; e.g. care - caring
- cared; but careless - careful; measure – measuring- measured - measurable; but measurement - measureless.

Exceptions: If a soft с or g comes before the e, the e must be retained to keep the с or g soft: e.g. courage -courageous, replace - replaceable. A few other exceptions are true - truly, due - duly, awe - awful.

4. When you add a suffix beginning with a vowel to a word of one syllable ending in a single consonant
with a single vowel letter before it, you double the consonant letter: e.g. fit -fitting -fitted -fitter -fittest; but
fitness - fitful; star - starry - starred - starring; but starless - starlet.

Exception: bus - buses, gas - gases.

5. In words of more t