What does construction of a building start with? Construction of any building usually starts with excavation. Excavation is a process necessary for the construction of every modern building.
It is well-known fact that there exist different kinds of soil. It is also a well-known fact that the structure of the upper stratum of the soil is of great importance for excavation. The foundation of a building should never be placed on organic soils because soils of this kind are easily decomposed. They are decomposed because water and wind change their structure. So, if the upper stratum of soil is organic, it must be removed from the construction area in order to guard the foundation of the building against water and wind erosion. Further excavation may take place only after the upper organic stratum has been removed. In colder climates the foundations of buildings should be placed below the level to which the ground freezes in winter.
What are the major parts of building? Modern buildings have three major parts. These are the superstructure, the substructure, and the foundation. The superstructure is the above-ground part of a building; the substructure – its below-ground part. As to the third part – foundation – its function is of great importance as it serves to transfer the loads of a building into the upper stratum of earth – its soil.
It is well-known fact that every building needs permanent stability. In order to have stability, buildings should have foundations. We know that the function of a foundation is to transfer the loads of a building into the soil. Foundations keep the walls and the floors of buildings from direct contact with the soil. They guard the walls and the floors against the action of the weather – rain, snow, and wind. They also guard buildings against sinking that may cause cracks in the walls. Foundation design is very special. It may be either rather complex or very simple. It is a common practice that for very small buildings foundation design is usually much simpler than for large ones. Why is it so? Firstly, because foundation loads of small buildings are usually low.
The loads that a structure imposes on the ground normally reach the ground (or the level of the lowest floor if that is below the outside ground level) through walls, piers, or columns. Ideally, if the ground surface is a firm stratum of natural rock, able to take the loads directly without noticeable settlement, the walls, piers, or columns can simply be ended when they reach it. They can also be built up directly from it after some preliminary leveling. Unfortunately, such strata have rarely been found in the places where men have wanted to build. Therefore, some means have had to be provided to spread the loads more widely or carry them down to rock or firmer ground at a lower level.
What kinds of load are supported by foundations? A foundation may support different kinds of loads. Among them there are dead loads and live loads. The dead load of building includes the weights of the ceilings, the frame, the floor, roofs and the walls. Besides, every modern building is known to have water, electricity, heating, ventilation and dispose of waste systems and, accordingly, their equipment. The dead loads also includes the weights of this electrical and mechanical equipment and the weight of the foundation itself. As to the live load, it includes the sum of the weights of the people and other living beings, the furnishings, and the equipment they use. The live load also includes snow, ice, and water of the roof.
There exist two basic types of foundations: shallow and deep. Shallow foundations transfer the load to the earth at the base of the column or wall of the substructure. Deep foundations transfer the load at a point far below the substructure. As to the price of these types of foundations, shallow ones are usually less expensive than deep ones.
2. Переведите на русский язык следующие английские словосочетания:
a well-known fact; above-ground part; different kinds of soil; permanent stability; construction area; foundation design; take place; preliminary leveling; major parts of building; shallow foundations.
3. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих словосочетаний:
верхний слой; трещины в стенах; строительство зданий; нижний уровень; фундамент здания; рабочая нагрузка; прямой контакт; собственный вес; защищать стены; глубокий фундамент.
4. Найдите в тексте слова, имеющие общий корень с данными словами. Определите, к какой части речи они относятся, и переведите их на русский язык:
excavate; nature; build; construct; differ; notice; found; settle; easy; rare.
5. Задайте к выделенному в тексте предложению все типы вопросов (общий, альтернативный, разделительный, специальный: а) к подлежащему, б) к второстепенному члену предложения).
6. Выполните анализ данных предложений, обратив внимание на следующие грамматические явления: числительные, функции глаголов to be, to have; усилительные конструкции; неопределенные местоимения some, any, no и их производные:
1. Construction of any building usually starts with excavation. 2. Further excavation may take place only after the upper organic stratum has been removed. 3. Modern buildings have three major parts. 4. Unfortunately, such strata have rarely been found in the places where men have wanted to build. 5. Therefore, some means have had to be provided to spread the loads more widely or carry them down to rock or firmer ground at a lower level.
7. Ответьте на вопросы по тексту:
1. Which part of organic soil is of great importance for excavation? 2. What is the function of a foundation? 3. What may cause cracking in the walls of buildings? 4. What are the loads supported by foundations? 5. What parts does dead load include? 6. What parts does live load include? 7. What are two basic types of foundations?
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