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This branch of engineering is concerned with the 1_________, construction, and management of factories in which the essential processes consist of chemical reactions. Because of the diversity of the materials dealt with, the practice, for more than 50 years, has been to analyze chemical engineering problems in terms of fundamental unit operations or unit processes such as the grinding or pulverizing of 2__________ It is the task of the chemical engineer to select and specify the design that will best meet the particular requirements of production and the most 3____________ for the new applications.
With the advance of technology, the number of 4____________ increases, but such ones as distillation, crystallization, dissolution, filtration, and extraction are of continuing importance. In each unit operation engineers are concerned with four fundamentals: (1) the conservation of matter; (2) the conservation of energy; (3) the principles of chemical equilibrium; (4) the principles of chemical reactivity. Сhemical engineers must organize the unit operations in their correct sequence, and they must consider the 5_____________ of the overall process. Since a continuous, or 6______________, operation is more economical than a batch process, and is frequently amenable to 7_____________, chemical engineers were among the first to incorporate automatic controls into their designs.
8 Work in pairs and describe the following unit operations: distillation, crystallization, dissolution, filtration and extraction.
9 Read the following extracts about chemistry lab glassware. Match the pictures (1-10) with their definitions (A-J) and underline the names of the lab equipment you see in the pictures.
What are these pieces of lab glassware used for?
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A Erlenmeyer flasks are used to measure, mix, and store liquids. The shape makes this flask very stable. They are one of the most common and useful pieces of chemistry lab glassware. Most Erlenmeyer flasks are made of borosilicate glass so that they can be heated over a flame or autoclaved. The most common sizes of Erlenmeyer flasks are 250 ml and 500 ml. However, they can be found in 50, 125, 250, 500, 1000 ml. You can seal them with a cork or stopper or place plastic or paraffin film or a watch glass on top of them.
B No lab would be complete without beakers. Beakers are used for routine measuring and mixing in the lab. They are used to measure volumes to within 10% accuracy. Most beakers are made from borosilicate glass, though other materials may be used. The flat bottom and spout allow this piece of glassware to be stable on the lab bench or hot plate, plus it's easy to pour a liquid without making a mess. Beakers are also easy to clean.
C Test tubes are round-bottom cylinders, usually made of borosilicate glass so that they can withstand temperature changes and resist reaction with chemicals. In some cases, test tubes are made from plastic. Test tubes come in several sizes. The most common size is smaller than the test tube shown in this photo (18x150mm is a standard lab test tube size). Sometimes test tubes are called culture tubes. A culture tube is a test tube without a lip.
D Volumetric flasks are used to accurately prepare solutions for chemistry. This piece of glassware is characterized by a long neck with a line for measuring a specified volume. Volumetric flasks usually are made of borosilicate glass. They may have flat or round bottoms (usually flat). Typical sizes are 25, 50, 100, 250, 500, 1000 ml.
E Graduated cylinders are used to measure volumes accurately. The can be used to calculate the density of an object if its mass is known. Graduated cylinders usually are made from borosilicate glass, though there are plastic cylinders, too. Common sizes are 10, 25, 50, 100, 250, 500, 1000 ml. Choose a cylinder such that the volume to be measured will be in the upper half of the container. This minimizes measurement error.
F A Florence flask or boiling flask is a round-bottom borosilicate glass container with thick walls, capable of withstanding temperature changes. Never place hot glassware on a cold surface, such as a lab bench. It's important to inspect a Florence flask or any piece of glassware prior to heating or cooling and to wear safety goggles when changing the temperature of glass. Improperly heated glassware or weakenedglass may shatter when the temperature is changed. Additionally, certain chemicals may weaken the glass.
G Petri dishes come as a set, with a flat bottom dish and a flat lid that rests loosely over the bottom. The contents of the dish are exposed to air and light, but the air is exchanged by diffusion, preventing contamination of the contents by microorganisms. Petri dishes that are intended to be autoclaved are made from a borosilicate glass, such as Pyrex or Kimax. Single-use sterile or non-sterile plastic petri dishes also are available. Petri dishes commonly are used for culturing bacteria in a microbiology lab, containing small living specimens, and holding chemical samples.
H A funnel is a conical piece of glass or plastic that is used to transfer chemicals from one container to another. Some funnels act as filters, either because of their design or because of filter paper or a sieve placed on the funnel. There are several different types of funnels.
I Glass bottles with ground glass stoppers are often used to store stock solutions of chemicals. To avoid contamination, it helps to use one bottle for one chemical. For example, the ammonium hydroxide bottle has to be used only for ammonium hydroxide.
J Pipets (pipettes) are used to measure and transfer small volumes. There are many different types of pipets. Examples of pipet types include disposable, resuable, autoclavable, and manual. Pipets or pipettes are droppers calibrated to deliver a specific volume. Some pipets are marked like graduated cylinders. Other pipets are filled to a line to reliably deliver one volume again and again. Pipettes may be made of glass or plastic.
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