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LEXICO-PHRASEOLOGICAL STYLISTIC DEVICES.

They are of three classes:

1. those stylistic devices which are based on the interaction of different lexical meanings of the word.  logical meaning – îñíîâíîå ñëîâàðíîå çíà÷åíèå, äåíîòàòèâíîå; ‚ nominal – íàçûâíîå, which gives names to things and beings; ƒemotive – ýìîòèâíîå, ýìîöèîíàëüíîå awful; „ contextual – êîíòåêñòóàëüíîå – not fixed in dictionaries. They may be imposed on the word by context. Swallow – ãëîòàòü. He swallowed his pride – didn't show it. The night swallowed him up – made him invisible. He swallowed the hint – understood it.

2. includes those stylistic devices that serve to intensify a certain feature of thing/phenomenon. (hyperbole, simile) as strong as a giant, as cunning as a fox

3. is based on the use of phraseological units, allusions, quotations, idioms… The use of idioms in a distorted, decomposed form: have finger in the pie: He had not only his finger, but his foot in the pie.

The scheme: mechanisms – types – stylistic functions.

1] includes the following devices:

Metaphor –is based on the interaction between logical and contextual meanings of the word due to a certain similarity of two different objects or phenomena., for example an object and an animal, or a human being and an object. Metaphor is a word used in a figurative meaning, not a literal one.

The semantic structure: Tenor, vehicle and implicit ground for comparison.

He broke his mother’s heart. Compare the word “broke” in this utterance and in He broke his new watch. (figurative in the first one and literal in the second).

They are brought together in the mind of the speaker/writer due to some similarity between them, obvious or more difficult to discover.

 

(Swallow the hint, one’s pride. The night swallowed them up.)

- Metaphors can be embodied in different notional parts of speech: verb, noun, and adverb. She snaked her way through the crowd. The leaves fell down sorrowfully. Trite metaphor is easy to decode due to its high predictability, so that its expressive power is limited.

- According to the degree of unexpectedness metaphors can be

· trite – ñòåðòàÿ

· and genuine

Examples of trite metaphor are seeds of evil; ray of hope. Their predictability is high; they are fixed in dictionaries as secondary meanings of words, and are in fact what we call in Russian ßÇÛÊÎÂÀß ÌÅÒÀÔÎÐÀ. So metaphor is a means of nomination which helps to form new meanings of words. Trite metaphor is easy to decode due to its high predictability, so that its expressive power is limited.

 

Sally is a block of ice. Richard is a gorilla.- fierce, nasty, violent like that animal.[although gorilla is in fact a quiet, peaceful animal, our negative associations are based on the traditionally negative opinion of its character]

 

· genuine metaphor – õóäîæåñòâåííàÿ. Its predictability is very low. Such metaphors are created by the author (writer or poet, anyone who is creative in using the language).It is a product of speech (language-in-action)

is


Carl Sandburg: "Fog"

The fog comes

On little cat feet

It sits looking

at the harbour and city On silent haunches

And then moves on.

Points of similarity: appearance, grey/white soft

Behavior and traits silent,, curious, enigmatic, unpredictable

Fog - cat

,

 


 

Metaphors can also be

o prolonged/sustained: A beautiful new swan spreads her wings. Swan and wings are semantically related words

Another type of metaphor is Personification in which the author identifies inanimate object with a human being. The face of London. Pain of the ocean.

The main stylistic functions of metaphor is creating imagery. Genuine metaphors are used in emotive prose, poetry, imaginative literature, and trite metaphors are a typical feature of spoken English, newspaper and publicist styles. Scientists tend to trite metaphor in even in scientifi

 

A new approach to metaphors was worked out by Lakoff and Johnson and described in their book “Metaphors we live by”

They maintain that metaphors that we use in speech structure the way we think. We discuss economy in terms of human health: getting over an illness,

an Ailing economy, we talk about life as a journey with its roads, paths, bumps, crossroads, etc. we talk about countries as if they were people: France and her neighbours

We often talk about books in terms of food – we devour books have appetite for them. About argument as a war or battle where we defend ourselves, attack, win or are defeated. They are called conceptual metaphors and its semantic structure is TARGET DOMAIN – SOURCE DOMAIN and the ground or foundation for the comparison. It is as a rule, implicit.

Conceptual metaphors are frequently used in Mass media, popular science writings.

 

 

Metonymy – ìåòîíèìèÿ. It's based on the interaction of logical and contextual meanings of the word, but the relation that brings 2 different concepts (ïîíÿòèÿ) together is association. It connects 2 different concepts thus one word may be used instead of another one. Ñúåñòü 2 òàðåëêè (ñóïà).. Example: The parks of London are the property of English Crown.

There are two main types of metonymy:

o traditional – fixed in dictionaries and quite predictable, easy to decode

o contextual – fresh creations of an author, it calls for good knowledge of the world around you. (Downing street 10 opposed this decision. Çàÿ÷üèìè øàïêàìè ðàçáèò Êîë÷àê. Ñåðûå øëåìû ñ êðàñíîé çâåçäîé Áåëîé îðàâå êðèêíóëè Ñòîé!)

They are built on certain types of semantic relations between the object mentioned and the object implied:

1. the name of the instrument may stand for the name of the action it produces. 1-.ïåðâàÿ ñêðèïêà îðêåñòðà

2. the material may stand for the thing made of it. The marble spoke ß íå íîøó çîëîòî.

3. a part may stand for the whole – synecdoche – ñèíåêäîõà. Two heads are better that one, I need 2 pairs of hands = 2 people for manual work.

4. the container is used instead of the thing contained. Would you like another cup?

5. a concrete thing may stand to imply an abstract notion. Ó ñåìè íÿíåê äèòÿ áåç ãëàçó = áåç âíèìàíèÿ. Chains/steel may stand for oppression; cakes and ale = hilarity of life.

6. The address of an organization may stand for its name

7. The date of an event can stand for the event itself – the 11th of September changed the world.

There are several other semantic models.

Shelley: Scepter and crown must tumble down

And in the dust be equal made with the poor, crooked scythe and spade.

Metonymic epithet She lives at an expensive address. -

The aim of metonymy is creating imaginary, especially if it is a contextual one.

Its other function is bringing to the foreground some significant detail of the object described.

Irony – the contextual meaning of the word/phrase becomes the opposite of its logical meaning.

It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket. The word that contains irony must be logically stressed.

Only words with positive connotation can be used as this device. Some of them are: nice, clever, superb, interesting, sweet.. Stony smiled the sweet smile of an alligator. Sometimes irony is not easy to identify. In a spoken utterance a sarcastic intonation may mark the irony.

There are several types of irony.

1. In verbal irony we can observe a contrast between what is said and what is actually meant. Delightful in the above-mentioned example.

In Russian: Ìîëîäåö! Îïÿòü âñå ïåðåïóòàë!

2 In Dramatic irony the audience and the reader know something that one or more of the characters do not know. Gwendolen thinks that Jack’s name is Earnest. In “The Importance of Being Earnest”. The audience knows that Jack has lied about his name.

3 In the case of Situational irony an event turns out to be the reverse of what is expected or intended.

Irony is very much appreciated by the English – it's a mild, vague way of expressing criticism. For example: This is a nice mess you’ve got us into!

Here the word nice acquires the meaning ‘unpleasant’.

Or: She’s not too nice in her business methods. In this utterance ‘ nice’ means ‘not honest’, and is a mild way of expressing criticism. Its use has become one of the most characteristic features of ‘postmodern’ texts and aesthetic practices.

Understatement, overstatement and exaggeration may slide into irony.

 

Antonomasia – àíòîíîìàçèÿ – nominal meaning interacts with the logical. The two meanings are simultaneously realized. Ñîáàêåâè÷.Ìîë÷àëèí A proper name and the capital letter is the main signal to this device.

Writers of children's and humorous novels and stories give their personages so called speaking names to characterize them through their names Íåçíàéêà, Çíàéêà,. Àéáîëèò Mrs Becky Sharp – from “Vanity Fair” by Thackeray ..

Mr Kelada in Maugham’s story “Mr Know-All” gave the impression of knowing everything, that is why he was nicknamed in such a way.

Sometimes antonomasia is used in newspapers and magazines: How much does Mr Average earn? Mr Toad among the pond life. Toady – someone, who flatters to someone, who is higher socially, more important, has more power, who wants to derive some benefit from it.

It is not always easy to identify this device.

Mr Snoop-ums – ìèñòåð Ïðîíûðà

This device sometimes presents difficulties for translation.

Thus, the name Mr Chattarino can be translated as ìèñòåð Áàëàáîëî

or ìèñòåð Áîëòîëèíî, but not as ìèñòåð Áîëòóí, as association with the Italian name would be lost in translation.

 

 

+

 

Among those stylistic devices, that are based on the interaction between logical and emotive meanings are epithet and oxymoron.

 

Epithet – shows a purely individual subjective emotional attitude of the speaker or writer towards the object in question.

Silver chain, wild animal, green meadows Silver moon, wilder joy, green years
The adjective display the logical meanings of the words, (ñåðåáðÿíàÿ, äèêîå, çåëåíûå) which point to inherent features of the object in question. They are not epithets, they are descriptive attributes They are epithets. They are point to the speaker individual, emotional attitude to the object in question

Logic + emotions = metaphorical epithets.

They are expressed by

· Adjectives (the silvery laugh, frowning cloud, the smiling sun, destructive charms)

· Adverbs (to smile cuttingly. He watched her sadly, eagerly, bitterly, ecstatically as she walked lightly from him)

· Nouns (in “of” phrases) a heart of stone.

· She was a white faded rabbit of a woman (similarity). It is called inverted epithet. Widely used in language both written and spoken. a shadow of a smile, giant of a man, a kitten of a woman, hole of a place (small town), a gem a book/ city, a devil of a girl (spoken), a honey of a car (inform), a dirty pig of an untrue friend

They are structurally divided into

· simple (one word) epithet: silvery laugh

· a compound word: night-long eyes, heart-burning smile

· phrase epithet: devil of a girl, white, faded rabbit of a woman, Giant of a man

· sentence – epithet. Devil – make – care attitude. It can be expressed by a complex sentence:

The man's eyes had a move –if – you –dare expression.

There are epithets called two-step epithets. They have a fixed structure: Adverb + adjective: a pompously majestic female. This kind of epithet is a typical feature of newspaper reviews on books, films, etc.

Transferred (or metonymic epithet) describes the state of a human being but is made to refer to an inanimate object: a sleepless pillow, merry hours, a narrow-minded room.

Isabel shrugged an indifferent shoulder.

They're used in written variety of language or creative and high prose, used to create an elevated effect. Sometimes it sounds humorous (Champaign -bottle-legged woman)

 

Oxymoron is a figurative combination of two incongruous or contradictory words in which the meanings of which clash as they are opposite in sense.

Complex simplicity, deafening silence.

The context sounds quite unexpected, unusual. This unexpectedness causes a powerful effect, reinforced by defeated expectancy.

 

In the “Taming of the Shrew” Biondello pronounces “Master! Master! News, such old news as you never heard of”. Bolisto answers: “Is it new and old too, how may that be?”

Oxymoron can be expressed by

· adjective + noun (old news, deafening silence, sweet sorrow, complex simplicity

· adverb + adjective (falsely true, annoyingly well- bred, horribly beautiful

· other patterns: doomed to liberty, damaged by improvements, full of nothing, crowded loneliness

1) reflects the philosophy of human life (collision of good and bad, black and white, etc) Due to this, oxymoron is often to be found in titles of books and films:: Ìåðòâûå äóøè, Îïòèìèñòè÷åñêàÿ òðàãåäèÿ, Æèâîé òðóï, Ãîðÿ÷èé ñíåã.

2) reflects life itself

3) appearance of oxymoron in a text is not accidental.

Oxymoron is a predominant stylistic device in O’Henry’s story “The Cop and the Anthem”: “the streets damaged by improvements” and “doomed to liberty”.

 

Pun (êàëàìáóð) is a play on words based on different meanings of words and words that sound alike. Besides, punning causes the effect of defeated expectancy. For example, a humorousrecommendation says: “If your wife has made up her mind to learn to drive a car, don’t stand in her way.” ’Don’t stand in her way’ is a polysemantic phrase which means 1) stand on the road, 2) prevent smth. Both meanings fit the context, are equally valid, both meanings are opposed. The contrast makes the joke even more amusing. More examples from advertisements:

The slogan of the ad advertising the services of an insurance company reads: Where there is a Will, there is a way. The word ‘Will’ in this context means çàâåùàíèå, but the original meaning’of will’ (æåëàíèå, âîëÿ)in the context of a familiar proverb is not entirely faded away. Thusthe ad says: If you have the will -–(document) and if you wish the company will help you to inherit property.

 

Puns are also based on the use of homonyms. They either sound or are written in the same way. Punning displays and appeals to the English sense of humour. An advertisement of a new bus route in Oxford contains an amusing slogan: (a “Take the wait off your feet”. The word WAIT replaces the word WEIGHT – âåñ, thus, the slogan says 1) don’t waste your time time, waiting for a regular big bus, and 2) take the weight off your feet - don’t stand, which is bad and tiring for the legs. This play on words in a familiar phrase serves to appeal to those who read it, to make them smile and enjoy the witty play on words, so that their minds will open to the intended influence.

 

Puns are used in jokes, anecdotes, riddles, humorous stories, advertisements to attract the readers’ attention, make a statement fresh, and influence or even manipulate them.

 

 

Zeugma (çåâãìà) Îí ïèë ÷àé ñ ñàõàðîì, ñ æåíîé è ñ óäîâîëüñòâèåì. In the language-as-a system homogeneous members must be semantically related. (Îí ïèë ÷àé ñ ñàõàðîì, ïå÷åíüåì è âàðåíüåì) But intentional violation of linguistic rules, a kind of playing with words, is extremely common in literature.

It creates a comic effect: humor, irony or sarcasm. It is mainly used in humorous and satirical writing. It may reveal the speaker’s sense of humour, which is considered to be typical of the British.

Maugham "Cakes and ale": …matters of big business or fornication

He snatched his coat from the hook by the door and a kiss from the lips of his wife.

 

ÄÎÁÀÂÈÒÜ èç ëåêöèé!!!!

 

 

2) Stylistic devices that serve to intensify a certain feature of thing/phenomenon:

Simile (ñðàâíåíèå) is used to intensify a certain feature of a thing or phenomena by expressing a likeness between 2 different objects (human - animal)

He is as greedy as a wolf.

It must not be confused with logical comparison (the boy is as tall as his father) – objects of the same nature.

Formal elements: as… as…, like, as if, remind, resemble.

The semantic feature of the simile can be shown in the following way.

She is as cunning as a fox
- tenor, object which is compared - foundation - vehicle, with which he tenor is compared

All the 3 components of the simile are explicit (âûðàæåíû ÿçûêîâûìè ñðåäñòâàìè)

She is like a fox. The foundation is implicit (ïîäðàçóìåâàåìîå). You, little fox! – metaphor.

Types

According to the degree of expressiveness & freshness we must distinguish between

· cliché (which is used in everyday conversations, official style)

idiom of comparison (fixed in dictionaries. They are facts of language system)

· fresh, original, highly poetical (poetry, prose) expressive similes which in some cases need long stretches of context to be understood.

w. Golding ‘the lord of the flies’ “for yards round the fire the heat was like a blow and the breeze was a river of sparks” was like a blow – implicit foundation, breeze was a river of sparks – metaphor. ‘Lord of the flies’ is a euphemism for ‘devil’.

 

Hyperbole. Aims at intensifying a certain feature of a thing by means of exaggeration of some quality, quantity, size. “the girls were dressed to kill”. Often used in spoken language - “for ages”. If it is smallness that is intensified, we speak about understatement (a woman of a pocket size) used to create a comic effect.

 

Periphrasis represents the renaming of a familiar object or phenomenon. Ñòðàíà Âîñõîäÿùåãî ñîëíöà – ßïîíèÿ. The country of the rising sun – Japan. The King of the beasts – lion – metaphor; jealousy – the green-eyed monster (Shakespeare); Shakespeare – the swan of Avon. This device has a long history; it was widely used in the Bible and in Homer's "Iliad". It was popular in the Latin poetry.

The aims of periphrasis:

1) to avoid repetition

2) to make the speech more colourful, elevated, figurative as it's based on metaphor and metonymy

3) it deepens our knowledge of the object in question

In the course of time they undergo some changes under the influence of social and economic situations. Ñëàáûé ïîë – weaker sex – in the USA it has a negative meaning à gentle sex – ýòî ñâÿçàíî ñ ôåìèíèñòè÷åñêèì äâèæåíèåì. Fair sex – women – it retains its usage. I am what I am – æåíùèíà íå ñòàðàåòñÿ âûãëÿäåòü ëó÷øå, ÷åì îíà åñòü íà ñàìîì äåëå – ïîêàçàòü, ÷òî ýòî íå åäèíñòâåííîå, ÷òî èõ îòëè÷àåò îò ìóæ÷èí à fair sex –women (is becoming old-fashioned).

1. Many periphrases are fixed in dictionaries – they are facts of language – language-as-a-system. They are stereotyped phrases. Flesh and blood – relatives; my better half- one’s husband, wife or partner(humorous)

2. speaker/writer – individual. She was still fat after child-birth. The destroyer of her figure sat at the head of the table. (child)

Many cases of periphrasis are figurative, though some are not – you understand it without difficulty. The king of beasts.- lion.

Some cases of periphrasis require longer stretches of context to be decoded. The destroyer of her figure. The most pardonable of human weaknesses – ñàìàÿ ïðîñòèòåëüíàÿ ñëàáîñòü – the author means love.

Figurative periphrasis often creates a comic effect/sounds jocular. To tie the knot –(marry) about men; step off the carpet – marry about women.

 

Euphemism is a whitewashing device which serves to replace an unpleasant word/expression by a more acceptable one. It sounds mild and vague and may avoid disagreeable and blunt truth. Lie – tell stories; I'm afraid you possess a very vivid imagination; I'm afraid you've been misinformed (in parliament); fib – âûäóìêà; I'm afraid you're economical with the truth.

They are used in different spheres of our life:

1. to replace so-called unmentionables: parts of the body, functions of body… Toilet à water closet, WC, â íåêîòîðûõ òåàòðàõ ìóæñêîé è æåíñêèé òóàëåò ìîãóò íàçûâàòü èìåíàìè ãåðîåâ ïîñòàíîâêè: Juliet's' and Romeos'.

It much depends on time whether the word can be used or not.

2. in moral spheres. Die à pass away, to meet one's Maker, pay one's debts to nature, join the overwhelming majority, go… Old people à senior citizens; divorced à free and independent; pensioner à a retired teacher/lawyer… (pensioner means that they don't have enough money to live on).

3. medical sphere – to name diseases. Tb ß tuberculosis; cr ß cancer; invalid à handicapped, disabled, physically challenged.

4. in parliament. Lie à be misinformed, chairman à chair person. In Scottish parliament they prefer more open language. (stone of scone – ñêóíñêèé êàìåíü – ñèìâîë Øîòëàíäñêîé ìîíàðõèè).

5. politics. Poor à disadvantaged, underprivileged, low-income groups.

6. mass media – to manipulate readers' opinion. Unemployment à redundancy – èçáûòîê ðàá.ñèëû, between jobs.

7. military sphere. Friendly fire ß be killed by the fire of you allies; smart weapon ß weapons of mass distraction; ethnic cleansing ß ýòíè÷åñêèå çà÷èñòêè, àðåñòû. 1974 – Vietnam war: bombing à air support.

8. PC – the idea of political correctness – a movement. People understood the power of words, so to choose less abusing words. Negro à African-American/ Afro-American, they prefer to be called "the Blacks". Pet à animal companion. Some euphemisms may sound ridiculous.

Although some sacred things are protected: God à Heaven, as God is too good to be used too often. Rich à financially comfortable.

Euphemism can consist of only one word or a phrase, while periphrasis is always a phrase.

 

 




Äàòà äîáàâëåíèÿ: 2015-09-12; ïðîñìîòðîâ: 184 | Ïîìîæåì íàïèñàòü âàøó ðàáîòó | Íàðóøåíèå àâòîðñêèõ ïðàâ

The subject of stylistics. | Varieties of language. | Stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. | Barbarisms | PHONETIC MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES. | SYNTACTICAL STYLISTIC DEVICES |


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