The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was created after World War II by a group of nations meeting in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. The Articles of Agreement of the IMF state that the purpose is ‘to facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade’ and to ‘ shorten the duration and lessen the disequilibrium in the international balance of payments of members’. The IMF administers a complex lending system. A country can borrow money from other IMF members or from the IMF by means of special drawing rights (SDRs) sufficient to permit that country to maintain the stability of its currency’s relationship to other world currencies. The Bretton Woods conference also set up the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) to facilitate the lending of money by capital surplus countries – such as the USA – to countries needing economic help and wanting foreign investments after World War II.
OPEC
The Organization of Petroleum Exporting countries (OPEC) is a producer of cartel or combination. One of its main goals was to raise the taxes and royalties earned from crude oil production. Another major goal was to take control over production and exploration from the major oil companies.
U.S. – Canada Free Trade Agreement – Соглашение о свободе торговли между США и Канадой
Eliminates – устранять
Side – дополнительный
Prevent – предотвратить
Qualified – правомочный, отвечающий требованиям
Originate – возникать, происходить
labor market – рынок рабочей силы
International Monetary Fund – Международный валютный фонд (МВФ)
Facilitate – способствовать
Shorten – сократить
Duration – длительность, продолжительность
Disequilibrium – неустойчивость, потеря равновесия
balance of payments – платежный баланс
lending – давать в долг
special drawing rights (SDRs) – особые права заимствования
stability – стабильность, устойчивость
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) – Всемирный банк реконструкции и развития
capital surplus countries – страны, имеющие избыток капитала
Organization of Petroleum Exporting countries (OPEC) – Организация стран-экспортеров нефти - ОПЕК
Combination – союз
raise the taxes – собирать налоги
royalties – лицензионный платеж, арендная плата за право
exploration – исследование, изучение
legal problems of PR
Examples of Legal problems
To be effective and persuasive, public relation writing must be conducted within a legal and ethical framework. First, you must understand legal concepts so as to know what you may do and what you must avoid. Careless work can lead to costly litigation for you and your employer. Second, you cannot produce and distribute publicity materials that are credible and believable if you don’t have a strong ethical and professional orientation. The public demands accountability and won’t tolerate mere “ puffery ”.
As a public relations writer, you represent the management of your organization. What you release is interpreted as the voice of management. Nevertheless, you can be held personally liable for any statements that cause defamation or violate the guidelines of state regulatory agencies. Actions are ordinarily brought against the top officials of an organization, but remember that you can be named as a co-defendant.
To protect yourself, you should be sure that the facts you are given are accurate. It is no excuse to say, “The told me that was so”. In a trial, you must be able to prove that you made a reasonable effort to verify information.
Among the actions for which you might be liable are the following:
· Disseminating information that a court or regulatory agency finds misleading, untrue or damaging;
· Participating in an illegal action;
· Counseling or guiding policy to accomplish an illegal action;
· Setting up an organization whose real identity is concealed.
legal and ethical framework – в юридических и этических рамках
litigation – судебный процесс
distribute – распространять
credible and believable – заслуживающий доверия и правдоподобный
demands accountability – требовать отчета
tolerate – терпеть
puffery – чрезмерное рекламирование
release – выпускать
be held liable – быть ответственным за
cause defamation – явиться причиной диффамации, клеветы
violate – нарушать
regulatory agencies – органы гос власти
Actions are brought – возбуждены судебные дела
co-defendant – соответчик
trial – судебный процесс
to verify information – проверять информацию
Disseminating information – распространять информацию
to accomplish an illegal action – совершить противозаконное действие
libel and slander
Any false statement about a person that is printed or broadcast and tends to bring on this person public hatred, contempt, or ridicule or to inflict injury on his or her business or occupation may be libel. If the statement is broadcast, it may constitute either libel or slander. If it is made to a third person but neither printed nor broadcast, it may be slander.
Any plaintiff in a libel suit must prove four points: 1) that the statement was published to others by print or broadcast; 2) that the plaintiff was identified or is identifiable; 3) that there was actual injury in the form of money losses, impairment of reputation, humiliation, or mental anguish and suffering, and 4) that the publisher of the statement was malicious or negligent.
With public figures – people in government or politics or who are much in the news – the test is whether the publisher of the statement knew that it was false or had a reckless disregard for its truth. The question of who is a public figure cannot be answered arbitrarily, and the courts are inconsistent on this. It often depends on the context.
With private figures – people who are not officials or prominent in the news – the test is whether the publisher of the statement was negligent in checking the truth of it. In quoting someone, for instance, be sure you state exactly what was said.
These few highlights only hint at the ramifications of libel law. For your protection and for the protection of your organization, you need to dig deeper into this subject.
Remember that you needn’t use a name to commit libel. A recognizable description serves the same purpose. If the subject remains unnamed but the public knows who is being talked about, there may be grounds for a libel case.
Broadcast – передавать по радио или ТВ
Hatred – ненависть
contempt – презрение
ridicule – осмеяние, насмешка
inflict injury – причинять вред
libel – письменная клевета
slander – клевета, злословие
plaintiff – истец
libel suit – иск о клевете
money losses – денежные убытки
impairment of reputation – нанесение ущерба репутации
humiliation – унижение
mental anguish – душевные страдания
malicious – злобный, предумышленный
negligent – небрежный, халатный
reckless disregard – безответственное пренебрежение
arbitrarily – произвольно
inconsistent – непоследовательный, противоречивый
private figures – частные лица
highlights – основные моменты, факты
ramifications of libel law – ответвление, часть закона о клевете
commit libel – оклеветать
there may be grounds for a libel case – возможны основания для начала судебного дела о клевете
copyright law
The purpose of a copyright is to secure for the creator of original material all the benefits earned by creating it. Copyrights apply not only to written words but also to illustrations, plays, musical works, motion pictures, sound recordings, graphics, sculptures, pantomimes, and dances. Two aspects of copyright law concern you: the use of copyrighted material and the protection of the work that you do.
The copyright law protects original material published during and after the author’s lifetime as well as unpublished material. Material does not have to be printed or distributed for copyright protection. As soon as it is created in a concrete form, it is protected, particularly if it bears a copyright notice but also even if it does not.
Distributing or offering to distribute copies of a work to the public is considered publication. Such distribution may be free or paid.
If you want the most unassailable copyright protection, you should take formal steps to acquire it as soon as any material is published.
News releases, features, and illustrations accompanying them are not normally copyrighted. Booklets, leaflets, books and similar productions usually are copyrighted unless there is a desire to allow others to reproduce them. In that case, it is customary to place a notice in the publication stating that reproduction and distribution of copies is permissible without charge.
copyright -авторское право
to secure – гарантировать
benefits – выгодна, денежная прибыль
apply – касаться, относиться
copyright law – закон о защите авторских прав
copyright protection – охрана авторских прав
copyright notice – предупреждение о сохранении авторского права
News releases – пресс-релиз, сообщение для печати
Features – статья, очерк
Booklets – брошюра
Leaflets – листовка
permissible without charge – разрешенный бесплатно
trademark law
An organization’s name, products, slogans and manufacturing processes are usually trademarked. That means that these things are officially registered and their use is restricted to the owner or manufacturer. A trademark is legally protected and should be capitalized whenever it is used.
A trademark is a valuable asset jealously guarded by its owners. Sony, Coca-Cola, IBM, Porsche, McDonald’s, and Reebok are all registered trademarks. So is the Mercedes-Benz star symbol.
Organizations and corporations protect their trademark in various ways. One method is to establish standard policies on how the organization should use and display its trademarked names. You must know the registered trademarks of your company and how they may be used.
Companies also guard their trademarks by continually using them, sending advisories to media outlets about proper use of these trademarks, placing advertisements in journalism publications reminding readers of trademarked names, and monitoring publications to ensure that other organizations are not infringing on a trademark. If they are, legal action is threatened or taken.
In sum, make yourself familiar with what might be considered trademark infringement. Even if you are innocent, the money and time spent fighting a lawsuit are rarely worthwhile.
Here are some guidelines the courts use to determine if a trademark has been infringed:
· Has the defendant used a name as a way of capitalizing on the reputation of another organization’s trademark?
· Is there an intent to create confusion in the public mind? Is there an intent to imply a connection between the defendant’s product and the item identified by the trademark?
· How similar are the two organizations? Are they providing the same kinds of services or products?
· Has the original organization actively protected the trademark by publicizing it and using it?
· Is the trademark unique? A trademark that merely describes a common product might be in trouble. Microsoft, for example, lost a bid to trademark the word “windows” for its exclusive use.
Trademark – иметь торговую марку, торговая марка
restricted to – быть ограниченным
asset -ценное качество, достояние
jealously – рьяно
advisories – информационное сообщение, инструкция
media outlets – редакции газет и журналов
monitoring publications – контролировать публикации
infringing on – нарушать закон о торговой марке
legal action – судебный иск
infringement – нарушение
fighting a lawsuit – защищать иск в суде
defendant – ответчик
capitalizing on – наживаться, извлекать выгоду
intent – намерение
imply – подразумевать, предполагать
lost a bid to trademark the word “windows” – не удалось получить слово «windows» в качестве торговой марки
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