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New knowledge becomes more meaningful when you can relate it to actual life experiences. Here you have an opportunity to think more deeply about some of the concepts discussed in the chapter and to practice applying them. The exercise will contribute to your learning whether it is done before or after the Self-Test. So, whenever you feel prepared, try applying your new knowledge to these situations and to your own life experiences.
1.1 Identify the independent and dependent variables in each of the following experiments.
A. A psychologist investigates the effects of the amount of alcohol consumption on thenumber of dreams subjects have while sleeping.
1. independent variable
2. dependent variable
B. A researcher conducts a study in which she measures academic performance among students who do and do not eat breakfast regularly.
1. independent variable
2. dependent variable
C. Third graders are rewarded for cooperative behaviors, and a school psychologist observes to see if their rate of being cooperative increases as a result.
1. independent variable
2. dependent variable
1.2 Identify the type of research method being employed in each of the following studies.
experiment naturalistic observation
interview case study
questionnaire
A. _________ A researcher asks a number of people a series of stand ardized, open-ended questions concerning their willingness to report child abuse cases.Her goal is to explore the issue in depth so that she can make recommendations to child abuse agencies.
B. ________ A clinical psychologist, who specializes in the treatment of parents involved in child abuse, keeps in-depth notes concerning his clients' life histories, emotional dispositions, and behavioral mannerisms. Based on these individual studies, he has identified life experiences and personality traits common among his clients.
C. _________ As part of a treatment program, child abuse families are asked to play games in the mental health center recreation room. A psychologist watches their interactions from behind a mirrored one-way window and collects data concerning the number and type of interactions that parents and their children have.
___________ In a superbly designed study that insures that nobody actually gets hurt, a researcher sets out to test her idea that frustration is a key variable observed in parental attacks upon children. She uses two groups of subjects and places one of the groups in a frustrating situation. She then watches and collects data concerning the effects of frustration.
A researcher is interested in the number of people in his community that know how to go about reporting child abuse cases. He mails a list of specific questions to a large number of households and asks for them to be filled out and returned. From this study he is able to gather a large amount of specific information in a relatively short amount of time.
SELF-TEST
Before proceeding to the Self-Test, REVIEW the Learning Objectives listed at the chapter opening, and RECITE from memory everything you can remember in support of them. Then take this Self-Test as if it were to be graded by your teacher. Use the Learning Objective numbers in the answer section as a reference to re-study the corresponding text pages and Progress Checks for any incorrectly answered questions.
1. Which of the following is a behavior?
A. daydreaming
B. sleeping
C. kicking a ball
D. all of the above
2. Which of the following is not a goal of psychology?
A. Understanding why certain behaviors occur as they do and making predictions about when certain behaviors will occur.
B. Deciding what behaviors are and are not socially acceptable.
C. Measuring and describing behavior in a scientific way.
D. Solving problems that interfere with people's happiness by helping them change their behavior.
3. Which of the following statements is false}
A. Psychologists tend to consider research one of their most important activities.
B. Psychoanalysts are usually psychiatrists.
C Psychologists, psychiatrists, and psychoanalysts use such different approaches
that they seldom are found working together. D. Psychiatrists can prescribe medications when treating emotional disturbances.
4- Of those APA members who work in the human service fields,
hold doctoral degrees.
A. 37%
B. 46%
C. 63%
5. The main difference between clinical and counseling psychologists is
A. their ability to conduct research within the job setting.
B. their ability to work for public agencies.
C. the seriousness of the emotional problems they treat.
D. their interest in helping people adjust to new or stressful situations.
6.----------------- A team of psychologists visit the elementary schools in their county to conduct workshops on "Staying Away from Strangers" with the children. These psychologists are probably psychologists.
A. community
B. school
C. educational
D. developmental
7. In which of the following situations would you be least likely to find an experimental psychologist?
A. Teaching psychology to college freshmen.
B. Studying how noise affects chimpanzees.
C. Investigating the variables that lead to attraction.
D. Giving a depressed individual a personality test.
8. The examination of the contents of the mind through self-reports of what one is thinking and feeling is called
A. interpretation.
B. introspection.
C. perception.
D. free association.
9. One of the first psychologists to develop a psychological theory about the causes and appropriate treatment for emotional disturbances was
A. Wilhelm Wundt.
B. William James.
C. Sigmund Freud.
D. John Watson.
10. A correlation
A. provides enough information about relationships so that a researcher is able to make statements concerning significant differences.
B. indicates that the presence of one variable causes a change in a second variable.
C. tells us that the presence of one variable is regularly associated with the presence of another variable.
D. allows a researcher to make causal inferences concerning behavior.
11. The tentative idea or expectation that a researcher tests in an experiment is called
A. a prediction.
B. a hypothesis.
C. a variable.
D. a statement of certainty.
1? In a carefully controlled experiment, the differences observed among experimental and control groups arc the result of
A. the independent variable.
B. the dependent variable.
C. the sample size.
D. B and C
13. In order to be useful, the subjects in a control group must
A. be normal, healthy adults.
B. be identical to the experimental group with regard to variables important to the experiment.
C. understand the purpose of the experiment.
D. receive the same treatment the experimental group receives.
14. The method of study that allows researchers to minimize the effects of their presence in the study is
A. a questionnaire.
B. a case study.
C. an experiment.
D. naturalistic observation.
15. A person with a long history of emotional disorders finally seeks out the help of a psychologist. The psychologist would probably begin her investigation of the problem with
A. an interview.
B. a questionnaire.
C. a case study.
D. naturalistic observation.
16. Research findings in psychology should be applied
A. as soon as an experiment has been completed so that people in need can benefit from the new knowledge.
d. only when medical treatment-is ineffective.
C. to mentally ill patients and then to the normal population.
D- with caution and, in the beginning, to small numbers of people.
PROGRESS CHECK 1.1
1. Complete the following sentences with one of the options provided.
A._______________________________________ Contemporary psychologists define psychology as the science of
(Learning Objective 1.1)
(the mind I behavior I emotional disturbance)
B._______________________________________ Psychologists who see their field as an applied discipline try to
behavior. (Learning Objective 1.1)
(uncover scientific principles of I solve problems by changing)
C.______________ Behavior always directly observable.
(is/is not)
D.----------------- A has a graduate degree, usually a Ph.D.
(psychiatrist I psychologist)
E.________ A: has extensive training in the methods of scientific research, psychological testing, and the evaluation and treatment of emotional disturbances.(Learning Objective 1.2)
(psychoanalyst! psychiatrist I psychologist)
F.____________________ A psychiatrist is a who specializes in the treatment of
disturbed behavior (Learning Objective 1.2)
(psychologist I physician)
G. -------------- use a very specific method that includes dream analysis
and the exploration of unconscious motives. Treatment of emotional problems may last several years.
(Psychologists I Psychiatrists I Psychoanalysts)
PROGRESS CHECK 1.2
1. Match the following types of psychologists with the appropriate job specialization.
clinical psychologist developmental psychologist
counseling psychologist social psychologist
community psychologist educational psychologist
school psychologist industrial psychologist
A. _________ A psychologist who focuses on the changes that take place
as a person proceeds through life from conception to death. (Learning Objective 1.3)
B. _________ A psychologist who provides consultation to help a student or teacher improve and who works to help students, teachers, and parents understand one another. (Learning Objective 1.3)
C. _________ A psychologist who is concerned with how learning occurs in classrooms. (Learning Objective 1.3)
D. _________ A psychologist who might establish an outpatient mental health treatment center or propose a drug rehabilitation program. (Learning Objective 1.3)
E. _________ A psychologist who helps an employer increase production and who provides consultation concerning good management-labor relations. (Learning Objective 1.3)
F. ________ A psychologist who focuses on attitude formation, group behavior, and topics like aggression. (Learning Objective 1.3)
G. _________ A psychologist who works for a mental health agency, hospital, or university, provides vocational or educational guidance, and helps people adjust to change in life-styles. (Learning Objective 1.3)
H. _________ A psychologist who specializes in treating people who have behavior problems and emotional disturbances. (Learning Objective 1.3)
2. Complete the following sentences with one of the options provided.
A._____________ In 1982 of the American Psychological Association members were working in human service fields. (Learning Objective 1.3)
(46% I 63% I 89%)
B._______________________________________ Clinical, counseling, community, and school psychology are considered
and the psychologists who work in these areas are applied psychologists. (Learning Objective 1.3)
(human services I research fields)
C.___________________________ More job opportunities exist in psychology than in any other area of psychology. (Learning Objective 1.3)
(clinical I experimental I school)
D.___________________________________ A major interest of community psychologists' is_____________. (Learning Objective 1.3)
(research I prevention)
E._________________________ A psychologist who wanted to study the development of a behavior in several generations would probably observe. (Learning Objective 1.3)
(animals I an extended family)
F. psychologists make use of data to develop solutions to problems and help people manage their lives more effectively. (Learning Objective 1.3)
(Experimental I Applied)
PROGRESS CHECK 1.3
1. Match the following key concepts and terms with the appropriate definitions.
structuralism psychoanalysis
functionalism behaviorism
Gestalt psychology eclecticism
A. -------------- This approach was concerned with how and why the brain works the way it does and its relation to consciousness and behavior. (Learning Objective 1.4)
B. ________ This approach argues that the proper subject matter for psychology includes only overt behaviors that can be objectively observed and measured. (Learning Objective 1.4)
C. ________ This term describes the theory and treatment technique developed by Sigmund Freud in an attempt to understand how personality develops and how unconscious experiences affect one's emotional state. (Learning Objective 1.4)
D. ________ This early approach to psychology studied the contents of the mind by using introspection to determine what one was thinking and feeling. (Learning Objective 1.4)
E. -------------- This approach became a major influence in the field often am and perception and argues that behavior cannot be studied in parts, but instead must be viewed as an interdependent whole. (Learning Objective 1.4)
F. _______ This term is used to describe the practice of combining theories, facts, and techniques when studying behavior or providing treatment. (Learning Objective 1.4)
2. Complete the following sentences with one of the options provided.
A. Psychologists have become very aware that a complex and delicate interplay between
work together to shape individuals' daily behavior. (Learning Objective 1.4)
(the mind and inherited traits I biological and environmental factors)
B._______ The first psychological laboratory was founded by Wundt in Germany in (Learning Objective 1.4)
(1798 1 1879 I 1931)
C._______________________________________ Structuralists, Gestaltists, and psychoanalysts were all concerned with. (Learning Objective 1.4)
(observable behavior I private perceptions)
D.______________ Behaviorists attempt to explain the causes of behavior by cataloging and describing the relations. (Learning Objective 1.4)
(among stimuli and responses I between conscious and unconscious thought)
E._______________________________________ Modern psychology is strongly rooted in the principles of__________________(Learning Objective 1.4)
(structuralism I psychoanalysis I behaviorism)
F. Cognitive psychology, which emphasizes the role of in behavior, has become increasingly influential in therapies based on the principles of be haviorism. (Learning Objective 1.4}
(nutrition I thought /genetics)
G. Most modern psychologists use_ approach. (Learning Objective 1.4) {an eclectic I a psychoanalytic)
PROGRESS CHECK 1.4
1. Match the following key concepts and terms with the appropriate definitions.
variable independent variable
correlation dependent variable
A. _________ A measure of relationships, expressing how changes in one event are related to changes in another event. Such measures do not permit researchers to make cause-and-effect statements. (Learning Objective 1.5)
B. ________ A characteristic of a situation or person that is subject to change in an experiment. (Learning Objective 1.6)
C. _________ The part of an experiment that is directly and purposefully manipulated by the experimenter. (Learning Objective 1.6)
D._________ The behavior measured in an experiment to assess whether
changes in the variable being manipulated had an effect on the behavior. (Learning Objective 1.6)
2. Complete the following sentences with one of the options provided.
A. A psychologist has found __ when it is unlikely that the behavioral event under investigation could have occurred by chance alone. (Learning
Objective 1.5)
(an independent variable I a significant difference)
B.------------ The weakness of controlled experiments is that researchers may unintentionally __.. (Learning Objective 1.6)
(influence the results I investigate mistaken hypotheses)
C. The group of subjects that does not receive the treatment under investigation and that
is used for comparison purposes is called the group. (Learning Objective 1.6)
(experimental I control)
D.____________________ In an experiment, the the number of subjects in the control and experimental groups, the more confident we can be that the results of the experiment are repeatable and accurate. (Learning Objective 1.6)
(smaller I larger)
E._______________________________ The advantage of an interview over a questionnaire as a means for collecting data is that the interview allows the researcher to________. (Learning Objective 1.7)
[ (save time I ask additional questions I prevent lying)
F.________ The disadvantage of the naturalistic observation approach to collecting data is (Learning Objective 1.7)
(the researcher's presence I that the target behavior may not be exhibited)
G._______ Questionnaires, interviews, and naturalistic observation allow researchers to discover___________. (Learning Objective 1.7)
(cause-and-effect relationships I correlations)
H. The independent variable in Schachter's study on eating behavior was
(Learning Objectives 1.6 and 1.8)
(food I a fast clock! obese subjects)
I. _________ provide(s) the foundation for applied psychology. (Learning Objectives 1.3 and 1.9) (Basic science I Case studies I Common sense)
RESEARCH CAN SOLVE IMPORTANT DAILY PROBLEMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Like other disciplines, psychology has several subareas and specialties. Although these areas are diverse, each uses scientific methods to examine behavior. Psychologists conduct research in order to understand behavior and to explain why and under what circumstances particular behaviors occur. They also try to solve a number of real problems. The problems described below illustrate the wide range of behaviors psychologists observe, as well as some of the research methods they use.
Problem 1
Obesity is a problem for many Americans. It is one of the major causes of heart disease and strokes. Owing partly to internal physiological and emotional factors, overweight individuals eat too much and too often.
Because eating behavior involves both physiological and psychological variables, it is perfectly suited to psychological investigation. Some psychologists have monitored eating behavior to see how often and how much the obese eat compared with people of normal weight. These studies have shown that the obese not only eat more often; they also eat more at each individual eating session.
Stanley Schachter (1971) reported a series of studies in which he manipulated cues for eating behavior. In one study, subjects were placed in a room with food. A clock on the wall was made to work faster so that it seemed as if more time had passed than had really passed. For example, if one hour had passed, the clock showed two hours passing. Obese subjects in the room with the fast clock ate more
and sooner than obese subjects exposed to a normal clock or than normal subjects. These results suggest that obese people eat in response to external cues (such as a clock on the wall) rather than in response to internal physiological cues (such as hunger). (Chapter 5 describes in detail a man with a problem controlling his eating behavior.)
Problem 2
A bank teller arrested in New York City for murdering his wife, two children, and a neighbor is referred by the court for psychological testing. The court asks a psychologist (or team of psychologists) to determine if the teller understood what he was doing at the time of the crime and is therefore legally responsible for his behavior.
Psychologists make decisions regarding legal insanity only after a long process of psychological evaluation. Typically a psychologist interviews the person for an hour or two each day for two or three weeks. Next, the person takes a battery of tests designed to evaluate personality, intelligence, achievement, motivation, and the ability to perceive reality. The psychologist collects, analyzes, and interprets all these data before delivering an opinion to the court. Using these results, the psychologist tries to report with some degree of accuracy whether the person on trial was aware at the time of the crime of the difference between right and wrong, and to what extent the crime is a direct consequence of emotional disturbance. (Chapter 13 discusses the legal view of maladjustment.)
Problem 3
Psychologists and physicians now suspect that what people
may cause certain behavioral and learning problems. For example, children whose classroom behavior is disruptive may suffer from a behavioral problem called hyper-activity. The symptoms include restlessness, inability to concentrate, inattention, and seemingly unbounded energy. Psychologists at first thought these children were emotion-Ugly disturbed, but subsequent investigations have shown that at least some hyperactive children respond to treatment with controlled diets and drugs. Some researchers claim that the intake of certain substances in excessive amounts may account for hyperactivity. For example, a diet too high in sugar and too low in protein may play a contributing role. (Chapter 7 presents a case in which a change in diet brought about a change in behavior; Chapter 2 discusses techniques that help control specific outbursts of hyperactivity in a classroom.)
Problem 4
Many psychological researchers are interested in how children learn to think, talk, and otherwise develop intellectually. In studying language development, some researchers have recorded on tape the entire verbal output of children from birth to age four. They have analyzed these tapes to see if there is any consistent pattern in the speech development of different individuals. (Chapters 7 and 9 describe the results of such efforts.)
Other researchers have focused on how and when children develop specific cognitive abilities. For example, what is the best time to teach a child to read? Can newborns be taught to read? Psychologists have found that once a readiness factor in the child matures, teaching the child to read is relatively easy; before then it is virtually impossible.
As with intellectual development, researchers have found that certain kinds of social development occur at fairly thing, before actual problems can be solved in meaningful ways, much research and experimentation are necessary. Observing and measuring behavior carefully are themselves time-consuming processes. Then researchers must repeat their successful experiments to ensure that their findings are reliable. In their eagerness to test their theories, researchers sometimes wish that direct applications of their theories could be tested (and validated) sooner in the real world. But even after research has been published and reviewed by professionals, possible applications should be used cautiously at first and with small numbers of people.
Psychologists arc both scientists and practitioners. They seek botll to gather basic information about behavior and to apply that knowledge in meaningful ways. Often those applications have direct consequences for people on a day-by-day basis. Psychologists apply their research findings to help people better manage weight loss programs. They develop therapy techniques that help people develop successful coping strategies when under stress. Some psychologists apply behavior principles to classroom management, others to motivational techniques in the workplace. Some work at helping people like Jared Burger solve mid-life crises. In each case, basic science is being used as the foundation on which to build applications.
Through clinical practice and research psychology seeks to understand the interplay of many aspects of human behavior in order to
typical ages and stages of development. These insights have helped shape child guidance books and provided information to parents so they can encourage their children's social development. (Chapter 7 describes some applications of psychological theory to childrearing.)
Problem 5
Psychologists specializing in learning theory study how behaviors are learned; more important, they study how antisocial behaviors can be unlearned. For example, many children learn at an early age that their parents are easy to manipulate. Sometimes just a short bout of crying produces the desired results; sometimes it takes yelling, screaming, kicking, and throwing a tantrum to get what they want. Children often use such manipulations quite successfully.
Early research attempts to help children eliminate tantrumlike behavior came from laboratory studies of animals. Psychologists found that when animals were not rewarded for certain behaviors, they stopped exhibiting them. If the researchers started to reward the behaviors again, the behaviors recurred. The researchers reasoned that if tantrum behavior is rewarded, the tantrums will continue. In contrast, if parents stop rewarding the behavior and refuse to give in, the tantrums will eventually decrease in intensity and disappear. In this instance, data from the laboratory were successfully applied directly to the home environment. (Chapters 2 and 15 describe other psychological techniques to help control and manage children's behavior.)
These brief examples demonstrate the wide variety of research interests among psychologists. Understanding the circumstances and causes of specific behaviors (such as overeating or tantrums) helps psychologists help individuals to control their behavior and lead happier, more productive lives.
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