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Charles Darwin (1809–82), whose theory of natural selection is the foundation of modern biological sciences
England and Scotland were leading centres of the Scientific Revolution from the 17th century[226] and the United Kingdom led the Industrial Revolution from the 18th century,[209] and has continued to produce scientists and engineers credited with important advances.[227] Major theorists from the 17th and 18th centuries include Isaac Newton, whose laws of motion and illumination of gravity have been seen as a keystone of modern science,[228] from the 19th century Charles Darwin, whose theory of evolution by natural selection was fundamental to the development of modern biology, and James Clerk Maxwell, who formulated classical electromagnetic theory, and more recently Stephen Hawking, who has advanced major theories in the fields of cosmology, quantum gravity and the investigation of black holes.[229] Major scientific discoveries from the 18th century include hydrogen by Henry Cavendish,[230] from the 20th century penicillin by Alexander Fleming,[231] and the structure of DNA, by Francis Crick and others.[232] Major engineering projects and applications by people from the UK in the 18th century include the steam locomotive, developed by Richard Trevithick and Andrew Vivian,[233] from the 19th century the electric motor by Michael Faraday, the incandescent light bulb by Joseph Swan,[234] and the first practical telephone, patented by Alexander Graham Bell,[235] and in the 20th century the world's first working television system by John Logie Baird and others,[236] the jet engine by Frank Whittle, the basis of the modern computer by Alan Turing, and the World Wide Web by Tim Berners-Lee.[237] Scientific research and development remains important in British universities, with many establishing science parks to facilitate production and co-operation with industry.[238] Between 2004 and 2008 the UK produced 7% of the world's scientific research papers and had an 8% share of scientific citations, the third and second highest in the world (after the United States and China, and the United States, respectively).[239] Scientific journals produced in the UK include Nature, the British Medical Journal and The Lancet. [240]
Transport
Heathrow Terminal 5 building. London Heathrow Airport has the most international passenger traffic of any airport in the world.[241][242]
A radial road network totals 29,145 miles (46,904 km) of main roads, 2,173 miles (3,497 km) of motorways and 213,750 miles (344,000 km) of paved roads.[100] In 2009 there were a total of 34 million licensed vehicles in Great Britain.[243] The National Rail network of 10,072 route miles (16,116 km) in Great Britain and 189 route miles (303 route km) in Northern Ireland carries over 18,000 passenger and 1,000 freight trains daily.[100] Plans are now being considered to build new high-speed railway lines by 2025.[244]
In the year from October 2009 to September 2010 UK airports handled a total of 211.4 million passengers.[245] In that period the three largest airports were London Heathrow Airport (65.6 million passengers), Gatwick Airport (31.5 million passengers) and London Stansted Airport (18.9 million passengers).[245] London Heathrow Airport, located 15 miles (24 km) west of the capital, has the most international passenger traffic of any airport in the world[241][242] and is the hub for the UK flag carrier British Airways, as well as BMI and Virgin Atlantic.[246]
Energy
Main article: Energy in the United Kingdom
An oil platform in the North Sea
In 2006 the UK was the world's ninth-largest consumer of energy and the 15th largest producer.[247] In 2007 the UK had a total energy output of 9.5 quadrillion Btus, of which the composition was oil (38%), natural gas (36%), coal (13%), nuclear (11%) and other renewables (2%).[248] In 2009 the UK produced 1.5 million barrels per day (bbl/d) of oil and consumed 1.7 million bbl/d.[249] Production is now in decline and the UK has been a net importer of oil since 2005.[249] As of 2010 the UK has around 3.1 billion barrels of proven crude oil reserves, the largest of any EU member state.[249]
In 2009 the UK was the 13th largest producer of natural gas in the world and the largest producer in the EU.[250] Production is now in decline and the UK has been a net importer of natural gas since 2004.[250] In 2009 the UK produced 19.7 million tons of coal and consumed 60.2 million tons.[248] In 2005 it had proven recoverable coal reserves of 171 million tons.[248] It has been estimated that identified onshore areas have the potential to produce between 7 billion tonnes and 16 billion tonnes of coal through underground coal gasification (UCG).[251] Based on current UK coal consumption, these volumes represent reserves that could last the UK between 200 and 400 years.[252] The UK is home to a number of large energy companies, including two of the six oil and gas "supermajors" – BP and Royal Dutch Shell – and BG Group.[253][254]
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