| English | Ukrainian |
| he | він |
| used, come | приїздив |
| Past Indef. | минулий час |
| to | none |
| to | до |
| Italy, spring | Італія, весна |
| each | кожний |
| none | зазвичай |
| Common Case | род. відм. |
| none | род. відм. |
In simple language a syntagma is a pair of words connected by the master-servant relationship5
As an example, consider sentences in English and in Ukrainian: He used to come to Italy each spring and Зазвичай кожної весни він приїздив до Італії.
ШЬ Any language has a particular multi-level organization: its elements are organized in sets (paradigms) at various levels and a language speaker is using the elements of these sets to generate a message intended for communication with other speakers of this language and entirely incomprehensible for those who have no command of this language.
 |
| P |
5 This is an approach typical for Immediate Constituents (IC) Grammar.
Б І Б Л і З "і 6КЙ
Луганське! о державного цзгогічного університету мені Тараса Шевченка
7?2№
The latter fact is easy to illustrate by a sentence in a language presumably unfamiliar to the readers of this Manual. Consider Dutch sentence: Dat vat ik niet. One will understand it if he knows that:
ik is a Personal Pronoun, first person singular (English I);
vat is the first person singular of the verb vatten (English catch, get);
niet is the negation (English not, no);
dat is a Pronoun (English it, this).
Then being aware of the relevant English words (paradigm elements) one may render this sentence in English as I do not get it.
From the above one may conclude that a language is a code understood only by its users (speakers)6. Then, may be, translation is a process of decoding a message in one code and encoding it in another which is understood by another group of users using a different code. However, this is the subject of the next lecture.
6 This viewpoint is widely accepted by computational linguistics (viz., e.; Grishman R. Computational Linguistics: An Introduction - Cambridge, 1987).
Ј?3 QUESTIONS
1. What are the two main planes of a language? What is the relationship between them?
2. What levels are traditionally distinguished in a language? Give examples of the objects of each level.
3. What is a language paradigm? Give examples of lexico-semantic and grammatical paradigms.
4. -What is a syntagma? Qive a definition.
5. What is the language system? fiive a definition.
(§} EXERCISES
Ex. 1. Give the elements ofthe following lexico-semantic paradigms.
a) furniture, colors, time, times of the day, seasons
b) вибори; судова система; переговори; фінанси
Ех. 2. Compare the grammatical paradigms which enter the following English words and their Ukrainian equivalents.
house, man, easy, do-little, easy-going, white
Ex. 3. In the text below, name as many lexico-semantic and grammatical paradigms as you can find.
BOTH SIDES WILL MAKE SURE AMERICAS CULTURE WARS
CONTINUE The Internaitonal Herald Tribune. April 12, 2001. ByNeal Gahler.
The culture wars that so enlivened the 1980s and 1990s in America are said to be over. The savage fights that raged full-scale as recently as two years ago over gay rights, abortion, gun control, environmental protection and general permissiveness, and that culminated in the Antietam of culture battles, Bill Clinton's impeachment and trial, seem to have just petered out.
Pundits say the combatants, exhausted from all the verbal shelling, have accepted compromise rather than press on for total victory, and this has led to a new spirit of accommodation. One observer writes that the «crackle of cultural gunfire is now increasingly distant.»
It makes you wonder what country they're living in.
Ex. 4. Compare the paradigm sets used to form the following English and Ukrainian sentences and paradigm elements activated in the syntagmas of these sentences.
Jack is an early riser. Джек рано встає.
Lecture 3. LANGUAGE AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION
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