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Both structural and communicative types of sentences fall into affirmative sentences and negative sentences. A sentence is made negative by the particle not which is the most widely used negator. It is put immediately after the auxiliary or modal verb. The negator not has two forms: uncontracted and contracted. The former occurs mainly in formal English; the latter is usual in informal (conversational) English. There are two possible forms of negation contraction: one is when the operator is contracted and the negator uncontracted, and the other is when the negator is contracted but the operator is used in its full form.
| Positive | Negative | |
| Uncontracted | Contracted | |
| They’ve come. | They have not come. | They’ve not come. They haven’t come. |
| Tom is arriving tomorrow. | Tom is not arriving tomorrow. | Tom isn’t arriving tomorrow. Tom’s not arriving tomorrow. (The 1st form is more common.) |
| You ought to have come. | You ought not to have come at all. | You oughtn’t to have come at all. |
Note that the contracted negative forms of can and will are can’t and won’t and the uncontracted negative of can is cannot. The corresponding forms of shall are shall not and shan’t.
| He will be late. I can come early. I shall come early. | He will not be late. I cannot come early. I shall not come early | He’ ll not be late. He won’t be late. I can’t come early. I shan’t come early. |
Only the full negative form is possible for the first person singular of the verb to be in declarative sentences, I'т not late, the form ain’t being used only in dialects and uneducated forms of English. However, the verb contraction I'т is possible.
91.Point out the basic features of object. The object is a secondary part of the sentence referring to some other part of the sentence and expressed by a verb, an adjective, a stative or, very seldom, an adverb completing, specifying, or restricting its meaning. She has bought a car. The object can be expressed by:. A noun in the common case or a nominal phrase, a substantivized adjective or participle.I saw the boys two hours ago. . A numeral or a phrase with a numeral.At last he found three of them high up in the hills. 4. A gerund or a gerundial phrase.He insists on coming. 5. An infinitive or an infinitive phrase.She was glad to be walking with him. 6. Various predicative complexes. She felt the child trembling all over. 7. A clause (then called an object clause) which makes the whole sentence a complex one.:I don’t know what it was. The direct object is a non-prepositional one that follows transitive verbs, adjectives, or statives and completes their meaning. Semantically it is usually a non-person which is affected by the action of the verb, though it may also be a person or a situation. The situation is expressed by a verbal, a verbal phrase, a complex, or by a clause. Theindirect object also follows verbs, adjectives and statives. Unlike the direct object, however, it may be attached to intransitive verbs as well as to transitive ones. Besides, it may also be attached to adverbs, although this is very rare. From the point of view of their semantics and certain grammatical characteristics indirect objects fall into two types: a) The indirect object of the first type is attached only to ditransitive verbs. It is expressed by a noun or pronoun which as a rule denotes (or, in the case of pronouns, points out) a person who is the addressee or recipient of the action of the verb. So it is convenient to call an object of this typethe indirect recipient object. It is joined to the headword either without a preposition or by the preposition to (occasionally for). The indirect recipient object is generally used with transitive verbs.The cognate object is a non-prepositional object which is attached to otherwise intransitive verbs and is always expressed by nouns derived from, or semantically related to, the root of the governing verb. The retained object. This term is to be applied in case an active construction is transformed into a passive one and the indirect object of the active construction becomes the subject of the passive construction. The second object, the direct one, may be retained in the transformation, though the action of the predicate-verb is no more directed upon it. Therefore it is called aretained object. 92.Agreement and gorerment as two main types of syntactic relations. By agreement we mean a method of expressing a syntactical relationship, which consists in making the subordinate word take a form similar to that of the word to which it is subordinate. In Modern English this can refer only to the category of number: a subordinate word agrees in number with its head word if it has different, number forms at all.1 This is practically found in two words only, the pronouns this and that, which agree in number with their head word. Since no other word, to whatever part of speech it may belong, agrees in number with its head word, these two pronouns stand quite apart in the Modern English syntactical system. As to the problem of agreement of the verb with the noun or pronoun denoting the subject of the action (a child plays, children play), this is a controversial problem. Usually it is treated as agreement of the predicate with the subject, that is, as a phenomenon of sentence structure. However, if we assume (as we have done) that agreement and government belong to the phrase level, rather than to the sentence level, and that phrases of the pattern "noun + + verb" do exist, we have to treat this problem in this chapter devoted to phrases. By government we understand the use of a certain form of the subordinate word required by its head word, but not coinciding with the form of the head word itself — that is the difference between agreement and government. The role of government in Modern English is almost as insignificant as that of agreement. We do not find in English any verbs, or nouns, or adjectives, requiring the subordinate noun to be in one case rather than in another. Nor do we find prepositions requiring anything of the kind. The only thing that may be termed government in Modern English is the use of the objective case of personal pronouns and of the pronoun who when they are subordinate to a verb or follow a preposition. Thus, for instance, the forms me, him, her, us, them, are required if the pronoun follows a verb (e. g. find or invite) or any preposition whatever. Even this type of government is, however, made somewhat doubtful by the rising tendency, mentioned above (p. 66 ff.), to use the forms me, him, etc., outside their original sphere as forms of the objective case. The notion of government has also become doubtful as applied to the form whom, which is rather often superseded by the form who in such sentences as, Who(m) did yon see? (compare p. 69). As to nouns, the notion of government may be said to have become quite uncertain in present-day English. Even if we stick to the view that father and father's are forms of the common and the genitive case, respectively, we could not assert that a preposition always requires the form of the common case. For instance, the preposition at can be combined with both case forms: compare I looked at my father and I spent the summer at my father's, or, with the preposition to: I wrote to the chemist, and I went to the chemist's, etc. It seems to follow that the notion of government does not apply to forms of nouns. 93. Contrast three types of aspect of sentence in English language semantic, pragmatic, and structural. The semantic aspect (meaning)-the classification according to the semantic.(Actual division of sentence)Semantic aspect divides into: rheme, transition, theme. The notion of the actual division –has been put forward in theoretical linguistics. The purpose of the actual division of the sentence, called also “functional sentence perspective”, vs to reveal the correlative significance of the sentence parts from the point of view of their actual informative role in an utterance. the term was introduced by G.Mathesius. the main components of the actual division of the sentence are “the theme”and “the rheme” The theme expresses the starting point of the communication, i.e. denotes an object or a phenomenon about which something is reported. Theme has minimum semantic contextual weight, it has either only old information or minimum new information. The rheme expresses the basic informative part of the communication, its contextually relevant center. Rheme has maximum semantic – contextual weight and maximum new information. The transition-is positioned between the theme and the rheme.. the theme may or may not coincide with the subject of the sentence, and the rheme with the predicate. Theme-subject,rheme-predicate: walter(T)shook his head Theme –predicate, rheme-subject:at their feet, with mighty, formidable sluggishness, silent, mysterious and fatal, flowed the river.the pragmatic aspect (function)-the classification according to the purpose of the utterance. The structural aspect- the classification according to the structure. 94. Main notions of Syntax. 95. Notional parts of speech, its peculiarities 96.Secondary members of the sentence. The theory of the secondary parts is one of the last developed sections of linguistics. The usual classification of these parts into objects, attributes, and adverbial modifiers is familiar to everyone, no matter what his mother tongue may be and what foreign language he may study. Yet it has many weak points. The characteristic features of each of the three types are not clearly defined, and describing a given word or phrase as an object or an attribute in some cases, or again describing it as an object or an adverbial modifier, in others, often proves to be a matter of personal opinion or predilection. 100. Simple sentence, two member sentence. A two-member sentence may be either completeorincomplete (elliptical). An elliptical sentence is a sentence in which one or more word-forms in the principal positions are omitted. Ellipsis here refers only to the structural elements of the sentence, not the informational ones. This means that those words can be omitted, because they have only grammatical, structural relevance, and do not carry any new relevant information. In English elliptical sentences are only those having no word-forms in the subject and predicate positions, i. e., in the positions which constitute the structural core of the sentence. There are several types of elliptical sentences. 1. Sentences without a word-form in the subject position. Looks like rain. 2. Sentences without word-forms in the subject position and part of the predicate position. In such cases the omitted part of the predicate may be either a) an auxiliary verb or b) a link verb. a) Going home soon? b) Not bad. Free this evening? 3. Sentences without a word-form only in part of the predicate position, which may be an auxiliary or a link verb. You seen them? 4. Sentences without word-forms both in the subject and the predicate position. Such ellipses occur in various responses. What time does Dave come for lunch? - One o’clock. What were you thinking about? - You. 5. Sentences without a word-form in the predicate position. Such ellipses occur only in replies to questions.Who lives there? - Jack.
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