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Aspect is the expression of the temporal structure of an action or state. Aspect in English expresses ongoing actions or states with or without distinct end points. English has four aspects: simple, progressive, perfect, and perfect-progressive.
Although not always identified, the simple aspect is the default aspect of the simple present and simple past tenses. The simple aspect expresses single actions, habits, and routines. For the formation of the simple present and simple past verbs, please refer to the charts in the "Tense" section.
The progressive aspect expresses incomplete or ongoing actions or states at a specific time. For example, the use of the progressive aspect in I am floating the book indicates that I started floating the book in the past and am still floating the book in the present and presumably the future. The formula for forming the present progressive is [simple present "to be" + present participle]. The formula for forming the past progressive is [simple past "to be" + present participle].
The perfect aspect expresses the consequences resulting from a previous action or state. For example, the use of the perfect aspect in I have floated the book focuses on the end result of my floating the book (my having floated the book) as opposed to the process of floating the book. The formula for forming the present perfect is [simple present "to have" + past participle]. The formula for forming the past perfect is [simple past "to have" + past participle].
The perfect-progressive aspect expresses incomplete or ongoing actions or states that began in the past and continue to a specific time. For example, the use of the perfect-progressive aspect in I had been floating the book indicates that I started floating the book in the past and continued to float the book until a specific point in time at which I stopped floating the book. The formula for forming the present perfect-progressive is [simple present "to have" + past participle "to be" + present participle]. The formula for forming the past perfect-progressive is [simple past "to have" + past participle "to be" + present participle].
Present participles, or -ing forms, are formed by adding the suffix -ing to the base form of a verb. For example, the present participles of eat and read are eating and reading.
Past participles, or -enforms, are formed 1.) identically to the -ed past tense, 2.) by adding the suffix -en to the base form, or 3.) with a stem change. For example, the past participles of study, take, and begin are studied, taken, and begun.
13. A general account of the parts of speech
All the words of a language fall into lexico-grammatical classes or parts of speech which must be identified proceeding from lexical meaning, morphological characteristics and syntactical functions. So parts of speech are discriminated on the basis of the three criteria:
ü semantic criterion based on the evaluation of the generalized categorical meaning characterizing all sets of words constituting a given part of speech and having complete or incomplete nominative meaning;
ü formal criterion provides for the specific word-building features as well as formal properties of grammatical forms being possibly included into certain grammatical categories;
ü functional criterion concerns the syntactic role of a given part of speech in the sentence production, serving either self-dependent functions (of subject, predicate, object, attribute, adverbial modifier) or non-self-dependent functions (i.e. mediatory).
The paradigm of parts of speech in English includes the following: noun, adjective, pronoun, numeral, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, article, particle, interjection; all parts of speech are equally subdivided into notional and structural words.
Notional words (noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb) have a full lexical nominatjve meaning of their own denoting things, qualities, actions, states, property of property and can function as independent parts of the sentence, i.e. as subject, predicate, object, attribute and adverbial modifier.
Structural words have no lexical nominative meaning of their own and cannot be used as independent parts of the sentence. They are either connectors or determiners. Connectors are used to connect words grammatically or shape the grammatical forms of a certain part of a sentence. Here belong prepositions (at, in, from, on), conjunctions (that, which, what, till), auxiliaries (will, do, be, more, less), and linking verbs (seem, be, become, get, look). Determiners are used to specify the meaning of the notional words they refer to. These are articles and pronouns (a/the, his, this, that). The use of the article is of obligatory nature for English nouns and testifies to the existence of a special category of determination expressed by the article paradigm of three grammatical forms: the definite, the indefinite, the zero.
The striking feature of English parts of speech is variability of some notionals, which can often shift from one part of speech to another without any morphological changes in their form.
34. Classification of sentences. Semantic types.
The three aspects (structural, semantic, functional) lay the foundation for sentence classifications, based correspondingly on sentence structure, sentence meaning and purpose of communication. As a formally organized unit, the sentence possesses structure, which is understood to be a constructive integration of words (noun groups, verb groups, adjective groups, adverb groups) occupying certain syntactic positions (of subject, predicate, object, attribute, adverbial modifier) connected syntagmatically with syntactic relations (predicative, subordinate and coordinate).
According to their structure, sentences are classified as follows:
· simple, with only one predicative line expressed by subject and predicate, and composite, with two or more predicative lines, namely, complex, semi-complex, compound, semi-compound;
· complete, having full predication in the position of subject and predicate, and incomplete or elliptical, where missing parts are easily understood from the context;
· two-member, where both the subject and the predicate are explicitly expressed in the outer structure, and one-member, with only one part being explicitly expressed, the other one – missing, included are the following: nounal, adjectival, verbal, modal words, greeting, introduction formulas, incentives, excuses, etc.
· extended, having some other parts besides subject and predicate, or unextended, with the only positions of subject and predicate.
Content or semantics of a sentence tends to be considered as semantic structure integrated of lexico-grammatical meanings of its constituents by the rules of their combinality based on colligation (grammatical valency) and collocation (lexical valency).
Commonly, a definite syntactic pattern corresponds to a semantic structure which leads to the semantic classification of the sentence done on the basis of the meaning conveyed by the subject and on the basis of the meaning conveyed by the predicate. In accordance with the first factor, sentences are divided into the groups:
· Personal human (definite or indefinite): e.g. Someone has stolen his bike. Everybody felt happy. She works in a bank. Nobody will give me a hand;
· Personal non-human (animate or inanimate): e.g. Winter has come. The river flows into the sea;
· Impersonal factual: e.g. It is snowing heavily. It is fine. It was getting dark;
· Impersonal perceptional: e.g. It seems interesting. It tastes awful.
Reflecting the semantics of the predicate, sentences fall into such types:
· Actional indicating physically developed processes: e.g. He is doing well at school. They get to school by car;
· Statal indicating the state of the process: e.g. I respect intelligent people. He did not sleep well at night;
· Relational indicating social or personal relationships between people: e.g. He is her brother. They report directly to the supervising manager.
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