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Abstract. To what extent is multilingual discourse characterized by intercultural incidents?
This question has been widely discussed in current research on translation and intercultural
communication, especially as multilingual discourses take place in institutionalized contexts.
This chapter aims to contribute to this debate by focusing on interpreted briefings for
informed consent in hospitals. By analyzing questions typically posed by medical staff to
multilingual patients such as "Do you have any questions?" as well as patients' reactions to
these questions, the author aims to reconstruct starting points and forms of cultural actions.
The discussion of these actions sheds light on how to optimize not only multilingual but also
monolingual communication in institutions.
29. Translation peers always encounter with different changes in equivalence within different language levels range from physical forms into meanings. Catford (1988) defined translation as the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in other language (TL). Generally, almost all translation scholars emphasize the role of equivalence in the process or product of translation directly or indirectly. Therefore, it is in the center of the translation studies. It must be said that some scholars do not seem to refer to role of equivalence directly, however, if some one looks at their studies s/he will easily find out that equivalence would shed light on his/her studies. As a consequence, the nature of equivalence and its contribution and taxonomy will be defined in the following lines.
Equivalence, inevitably, is involved in any theory of translation which can be understood by the comparison of various texts cross linguistically. Catford (1988) considers different shifts within languages and contends that there are various shifts when any of translation is carried out by translators. He, heavily, focused on the different linguistic elements as crucial variables in equivalence definition and equivalence finding. Accordingly, he divided the shifts across languages into level and category shifts. Level shifts include studies like morphology, graphology…… etc. and category shifts consist of structural, class, unit and intra-system shifts.
There are other notions and assumptions described, explained and interpreted by translators and translation scholars. The work of Nida and Taber, Vinay and Darbenet, House and Baker are specifically dedicated to the equivalence, Baker (1992) regarded some different equivalents in his effort toward the notion and practice of translatics. She distinguished between grammatical, textual, pragmatic equivalents, and several others. Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) regarded translation as equivalence-oriented study. They said that equivalence is the ideal method in many practical problems of translatics.
33. Words in language are related to certain referents which they designate and to other words of the same language with which they make up syntactic units. These relationships are called semantic and syntactic, respectively. Words are also related to the people who use them. To the users of the language its words are not just indifferent, unemotional labels of objects or ideas. The people develop a certain attitude to the words they use. Some of the words acquire definite implications, they evoke a positive or negative response, they are associated with certain theories, beliefs, likes or dislikes. There are “noble” words like “ honour, dignity, freedom “, etc. and “low” words like “infamy, cowardice, betrayal”. Words can be nice or ugly, attractive or repulsive. Such relationships between the word and its users are called “pragmatic”.
The pragmatic implications of a word are an important part of its meaning that produces a certain effect upon the Receptor. Of even greater significance is the pragmatic aspect of speech units. Every act of speech communication is meant for a certain Receptor, it is aimed at producing a certain effect upon him. In this respect any communication is an exercise in pragmatics.
Since the pragmatic effect plays such an important part in communication, its preservation in translation is the primary concern of the translator, though it is by no means an easy task. The pragmatic aspect of translation involves a number of difficult problems.
To begin with, the pragmatics of the original text cannot be as a rule directly reproduced in translation but often require important changes in the transmitted message. Correlated words in different languages may produce dissimilar effect upon the users. An “ambition” in English is just the name of a quality which may evoke any kind of response — positive, negative or neutral. Its Russian counterpart «амбиция» is definitely not a nice word. Thus, the phrase ‘The voters put an end to the general’s political ambitions” can be translated as «Избиратели положили конец политическим амбициям генерала», retaining the negative implication of the original, but if the implication were positive the translator would not make use of the derogatory term. The sentence ‘The boy’s ambition was to become a pilot” will be translated as «Мечтой мальчика было стать летчиком».
Such words as “idealism” or “nationalism” often have a positive effect in the English text and are rendered into Russian not as «идеализм» or «национализм» but as «служение идеалам, бескорыстие» and «национальное самосознание, национальные интересы», respectively.
When we consider not just separate words but a phrase or number of phrases in a text, the problem becomes more complicated. The communicative effect of a speech unit does not depend on the meaning of its components alone, but involves considerations of the situational context and the previous experience. A report that John has run a hundred metres in 9 seconds will pass unnoticed by some people and create a sensation with others who happen to know that it is a wonderful record-breaking achievement.
In examining how context affects language use, linguists refer to the context-specific variety of language as a register. The three aspects of the context are known as field, tenor and mode. Field refers to the subject matter or content being discussed. Mode refers to the channel (such as writing, or video-conference) of the communication. By understanding these three variables, the kind of language likely to be used in a particular setting can be predicted — and, Michael Halliday suggests, this is exactly what we do, unconsciously, as language users.[1]
· How can we characterize language use? One way is to look at the relationship between language forms and the features of the context. The descriptive categories we use are Field, Tenor, and Mode. Based on Halliday's theory of language variation, we can describe web materials. Here is a summary of the descriptive categories to be used:
· Field
Field refers to the subject matter or topic. Field answers the question: "What is happening?" "What is the activity?" "What is the text/multimedia about?"
We examine a language/literacy project on the web to find out its content and aims. The description of the content should be clear and detailed enough to give readers a sense that they have explored the site themselves. At this juncture we can begin to suggest how the content affects the vocabulary used. Finally, we address the question, what difference does the web make in the development of the content of the project? That is, what advantage does this environment have over more traditional contexts for learning this subject matter?
· Tenor
Tenor refers to the roles of the participants in an interaction. Tenor answers the question: "Who are participating and what is their relative status or power?"
Examining the web site, we describe how learners interact with the material (who is in control?), or how students interact with one another and with teachers or others who are collaborating on the web. We should offer some insight into the relative status among any and all the participants. Does the designer control the action? Does the user have some agency in the activity? In short, how interactive is the site? And, how is the technology shaping or changing participation structures for learning?
· Mode
Mode refers to the channel of communication. Mode answers the questions: "What is the language doing?"
Examining the material once more, we look more closely at the language itself. We describe the code (language) used-e.g., English, Spanish, sign language, or mixed codes. We describe the means (sometimes called the channel of communication): spoken, written, graphics/images, and/or a combination of these semiotic systems. We discuss the function of each system and point out which predominates. We ask, is the communication exchange different from other types of human interaction? What features in these forms of communication differ from others?
· These three descriptive categories should lead us to a final evaluative comment about the pedagogical effectiveness of the material examined. Are there opportunities for users to be active learners? Does the material lend itself to achieving the stated goals? Does computer support enhance the achievement of these goals?
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41. House and Overt and Covert Translation and Equivalence
House (1977) discussed the concept of overt and covert translations. In an overt translation the TT audience is not directly addressed and there is therefore no need at all to attempt to recreate a second original since an overt translation must overtly be a translation. By covert translation, on the other hand, is meant the production of a text which is functionally equivalent to the ST. House also argues that in this type of translation the ST is not specifically addressed to a TC audience.
45. The ‘Cultural Filter Filter’
Construct capturing differences in expectation norms between recipients in L1 and L2 contexts. Important for translation criticism: The nature of cultural filtering helps differentiate between a covert translation and a covert versioncovert version
Cultural filtering ideally in line with results of empirical crosscross-cultural research which needs to complement
native speaker intuition
Example: Research on GermanExample: German-English communicative
norms to explain changes in re re-contextualisation
processes in covert translation
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