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Lecture 1. Language and extralinguistic world

Lecture 1. Language and extralinguistic world

1. What are the basic elements of the relationship between a language and extralinguistic world?

To understand the role of translation in everyday life we have do define the relation of language to the extra linguistic world. Languages are sensitive to extralinguistic world. Each language is an embodiment of national spirit. Hence the differences in semantic structures of the languages and problems connected with rendering linguistic and cultural elements. The translator adapts his text according to the rules of usage, linguistic traditions, dominant strategies of presenting and processing information in the target language. The relation of language to the extra linguistic world includes 3 basic elements: language signs, mental concepts and denotata (not necessarily material or physically really existing).

The language sign is a sequence of sounds or symbols which is associated with a single concept in the minds of speakers of that or another language signs are a kind of construction elements of which a language is built.

The mental concept is an array of mental images and associations related to a particular part of the extralinguistic world, on the one hand, and connected with a particular language sign, on the other);

The denotatum is a part of the extra linguistic world which not necessarily material or physically really existing.

2. What is a language sign, a concept and a denotatum? Give definitions. Show the relation between them.

The language sign is a sequence of sounds (in spoken language) and symbols (in written language) which is associated with a mental concept in the minds of speakers of that or another language. Sequences smaller than a word as morphemes or bigger than a word as word combination are also language signs. Word combinations are regarded as individual language signs if they are related to a single mental concept which is different from the concepts of its individual components (best man, deep breathing).

The signs of language are associated with particular mental concept in the minds of the speakers of this language. For example, citizen is language sign related to the concept of a member of a state or an inhabitant of a city or town.

The mental concept is the array of mental images and associations related to the extra linguistic world, on the one hand, and connected with a particular language sign, on the other.

The relation between a language sign and a concept is ambiguous: it is often different even in the minds of different people, speaking the same language. The relation between similar concepts and their relevant language signs may be different in different languages. For example, citizen includes the concept of a member of a state that of townsman, but townsman doesn’t include.

The denotatum is a part of the extra linguistic world which is not necessarily material or physically really existing. It is an actual object referred to by a linguistic expression

The most important fact is that the relation between language signs and denotata is only indirect and going through the mental concepts.

3. What is a lexical meaning, a connotation and an association? Give definitions and examples.

The mental concept of a word usually consists of lexical meanings, connotations, associations and grammatically meanings. The lexical meanings, connotations, associations relate a word to the extra linguistic world, whereas the grammatically meanings relate it to the system of the language.

A lexical meaning is a general mental concept corresponding to a word or word combinations. To get a better idea of lexical meanings one should take a look at definition in a dictionary. For example, the lexical meanings of credit are respect, discount, faith, good reputation.

A connotation is an additional, contrastive value of the basic usually designative function of the lexical meanings. As an example, let me compare the words to get in trouble and to paint oneself into a corner. The former has no connotation, but the latter has a definite connotation of high-flown language.

An association is a more or less regular connection established between the given and other mental concepts in the minds of the language speakers. For instance, one may associate snail with snail's pace or with snail maze.

4. What is the range of application of a word? Give examples.

The range of application of the lexical meanings reflected in limitations in the word combinations and stylistic peculiarities. A translator is to observe the compatibility rules of the language signs (make mistake, but do business)

5. What are main sources of translation ambiguity stemming from the sign-concept relationship?

The most important fact be born in the mind of translator is that the relation between language signs and denotata is only indirect and going through the mental concepts. The relation between a language sign and a concept is ambiguous: it is often different even in the minds of different people, speaking the same language. The relation between similar concepts and their relevant language signs may be different in different languages. For example, citizen includes the concept of a member of a state that of townsman, but townsman doesn’t include. And this fact causes to the problem of translation ambiguity.

Another source of translation ambiguity is the polysemantic nature of the language signs: the relationship between the signs and concepts is very seldom one-to-one, most frequently it is one-to many or many-to-one i.e. one word has several meanings or several words have similar meanings. These relations are called polysemy (homonymy) and synonymy. For instance, sign corresponds to the concepts of something that indicates a fact; board; mathematics symbol; significant event.

Lecture 2. Language system: paradigms and syntagmas

1. What are the two main planes of a language? What is the relationship between them?

The system of language is some order organizing hundreds of thousands of words making it easier to memorize and properly use them in speech. In any language system two general planes are usually distinguished: the formal plane, comprising spoken or written language sign and the semantic, comprising mental concepts the language signs stand for (words from a dictionary- formal plane, its definitions- semantic plane).

2. What levels are traditionally distinguished in a language? Give examples of the objects of each level.

A language system is traditionally divided into three basic levels.

The morphological level of a language (including morphs and morphemes objects) is the level at which meaning can be assigned to parts of words and the level that describes how morphemes (the smallest meaning elements of words) are combined to make a word. For example, -ate (congratulate, create), -ute (attribute, contribute), -able (detestable, curable) are word-building morphemes and belong to objects of this level.

The lexical level of a language includes words and objects. For example,

The syntactic level (including such elements as Subject, Predicate) concerns the structure of the sentence, i.e., the categories of words and the order in which they are assembled to form a grammatical sentence. For example,

3. What is a language paradigm? Give examples of lexico-semantic and grammatical paradigms.

A language system is traditionally divided into 3 basic levels: morphological (including morph and morphemes as objects), lexical (including words as objects) and syntactic (comprising such objects as elements of the sentence syntax). At each language level its objects may be grouped according to their meaning or function. Such groups are called paradigms

For example, the English morphemes S and ES enter the paradigm of Number. Words spring, summer, autumn and winter enter the lexico-semantic paradigm of seasons. Words the Sun, the Moon, meteorite, planet, train of a comet, stars etc. enter into lexico-semantic paradigm of heavenly bodies. All verbs may be grouped into the syntactic (functional) paradigm of Predicates.

One and the same word may belong to different levels and different paradigms i.e. the language paradigms are sets with common elements. As an example, consider the lexico-semantic paradigm of colors the elements of which also belong to the syntactic paradigms of Attributes.

The elements of language paradigms are united and organized according to their potential roles in speech formation. These roles are called valences.

4. What is a syntagma? Give a definition.

The paradigms of the language brought together form the system of the language which may be regarded as a kind of construction material to build sentences and texts. Language paradigms are virtual elements of the language which are activated in syntactically interdependent groups of sentence elements called syntagma.

In simple language a syntagma is a pair of words connected by the master-servant relationship.

A Syntagma is one syntactic or syntagmatic element. For example, repetition is a syntagma of epic structures.

5. What is the language system? Give a definition.

One may conclude that language system is some order organizing hundreds of thousands of words making it easier to memorize and use them in speech. Any system is organized set of objects and relation between them. In any language system there are 2 general planes: the formal plane, comprising spoken or written language signs, and the semantic, comprising mental concepts (meanings) the language signs stand for. (words from dictionary – formal plane; their definitions – semantic plane).

A language system is traditionally divided into 3 basic levels: morphological (including morph and morphemes as objects), lexical (including words as objects) and syntactic (comprising such objects as elements of the sentence syntax).

The paradigms of the language brought together form the system of the language which may be regarded as a kind of construction material to build sentences and texts.

Any language has a particular multi-level organization: its elements are organized in sets (paradigms) at various levels and a language speaker is using the elements of these sets to generate a message intended for communication with other speakers of this language and entirely incomprehensible for those who have no command of this language.

Language is a code understood only by its users.