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Figures of combination are SDs of semasiology. They are stylistically relevant semantic means of combining lexical, syntactical and other units (including EM) belonging to the same or different language levels. The realisation of the figures of combination is possible only in context. The most general types of semantic relations between words, phrases and utterances forming the basis of semasiological SDs can be reduced to three: meanings can be 1) identical, or 2) different or else 3) opposite.
| Figures of Combination |
| Figures of Identity | Figures of Opposition | Figures of Inequality | Figures of Inequality |
| Simile Synonyms-substitutes Synonyms-specifiers | Antithesis Oxymoron | Climax Anticlimax Pun Zeugma |
Simile is an imaginative comparison, embodied in an explicit statement of partial identity (affinity, likeness, similarity) of two objects belonging to different classes.
Simile is characterized by a definite formula or structure: it includes 1) the object named (the tenor); 2) the object being used to name (the vehicle) and 3) the link word as a formal signal of comparison. The links between the tenor and the vehicle are expressed mainly by the conjunctions like, as, as if, as though, as…as, than.
Simile should not be confused with simple (logical, ordinary) comparison.
Cf: She sings like a professional singer. She sings like a nightingale.
He talks French like a Frenchman. He talks French like a machine-gun.
Substituting synonyms are used for the sake of diversity, to avoid monotony.
Specifying synonyms contribute to precision in characterizing the object of speech. They mostly follow one another (in opposition to substitutes), although not necessarily immediately. There are two ways of using specifying synonyms:
1) as paired synonyms (safe and sound);
2) as synonymic variations.
Antithesis (from Greek anti “against”; thesis “statement”) is a stylistic device which presents contrasting ideas in close proximity in order to stress the contrast.
Oxymoron (from Greek: “ sharp(ly) dull ”) is based on the logical collision of notional words, which express mutually exclusive (incompatible) notions: loving hate.
The most typical oxymoron is a combination of:
– an adjective and a noun;
– an adverb with an adjective;
– structures with verbs.
Climax (gradation) – such an arrangement of correlative ideas in which every successive word, phrase or sentence is emotionally stronger, logically more important or more qualitative than the preceding one. This arrangement secures a gradual increase in importance (logical climax), emotional tension (emotional/ emotive climax) or in the volume of the corresponding conceptsin the utterance (quantitative climax).
A phenomenon opposite to climax is called anticlimax (back gradation). There are two types of anticlimax: gradual drop in intensity and sudden break in intensity/ emotive power.
Pun (also called paronomasia or calembour). The term is synonymous with the current expression ‘ play upon words ’. The semantic essence of this device is based on polysemy, homonymy or phonetic similarity and is meant to achieve a humorous effect.
Zeugma (Greek: zeuguana “to join, to combine”) is sometimes defined as the usage of parallel constructions with unparalleled meanings.As with pun, this device consists in combining unequal, semantically heterogeneous, or even incompatible, words or phrases.
Zeugma combines syntactical and semantic characteristics: syntactically it is based on similar structures, semantically it comprises different meanings, which leads to logical and semantic incompatibility.
E.g.: She possessed two false teeth and a sympathetic heart (O.Henry).
She dropped a tear and her pocket handkerchief (Dickens);
Cf.: Она потеряла честь и кошелёк.
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