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Sentence definitions.
Problem of definition. The German scholars to summarize all the definitions → 301 (gave up). 6 groups:
1. Log definition: s-ce – is a group of words expressing a complete thought (English Descriptive or nominative grammar, 18th c.) 2 Psychol D. (the school of the Young gram-s): s-ce- is not only a linguistic unit but also the structure of human feeling or thought. (Øàõìàòîâ – Ïðåäëîæåíèå – ýòî êîìáèíàöèÿ ïðåäñòàâëåíèé â ïðîöåññå ìûøëåíèÿ.). S.Curme (an Eng. scholar): a sentence is an expression of thought or feeling by means of a word or words used in such forms and manner as to convey the meaning intended. 3. Structural D. (classical Sc Gr-r), R.Zandvoort: a s-ce is an oral or written communication made up of one or more units, each of which contains a complete utterance formed acc to a definite pattern (ïî îïðåäåëåííîé ñõåìå). M.Bryant; the s-ce is a communication in words conveying a sense of completeness containing at least one independent verb with its subject. 4. Formal D. Amer Descr Gr-r) Ch. Fries: a s-ce is a word or group of words standing between the initial Capital letter and a mark of end punctuation or between two marks of end punctuation. 5. Phonetic D.(Amer.Desc Gr) M.Whitehall: an utterance ending with one of 2 intonation contours (fall→.!, rise→?) typical of the Eng. language. Mixed definitions where several features of a s-ce are reflected. The features: - the s-ce is a syntactic unit; - the s-ce is an autonomous unit which isn’t a part of a larger syntactic structure; - the s-ce is a structurally complete unit which is based on a certain syntactic pattern or modal and contains all the component characteristics of these pattern. The s-ce doesn’t necessarily express a complete thought because in many cases it may contain the words whose lexl meaning is ambiguous and depends on the context. Ex. She did that. - the s-ce is characterized by its own purpose of utterance. It can be a statement, a? or a command. - The s-ce as an syntactic unit is materialized in a written or oral form. Acc-ly it should be phonetically or graphically shaped. So, the s-ce is the smallest, autonomous, structurally complete syntactic unit having its own purpose of utterance and phonetically and graphically shaped.
Category of modality of a s-ce.
The meaning of every sent is related to reality. The gram category which is used to relate the meaning of an utterance to reality is known as Modality. Naida - M indicates the psychological atmosphere of the action as reflecting the speaker’s attitude. Âèíîãðàäîâ - Ì-ýòî îòíîøåíèå ñîäåðæàíèÿ âûñêàçûâàíèÿ ê äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòè ñ ò.çð. ãîâîðÿùåãî. Ch. Balie: “ In every s-ce there are 2 layers → dictum and modus. Dictum bears the meaning of the s-ce, what is said about the subj. Modus expresses the speaker’s attitude to what is being said. In every sent there’s obvious objective modality which indicates the sent meaning & its interrelations with reality. The most important and most universal means of expressing s-ce mod-ty is the verbal category of mood. Since every predicate in a s-ce stands in one of 3 moods the mod-ty expressed in this way is called the objective mod-ty. Objective mod-ty is subdivided into 2 groups: mod-ty of reality (indicative mood) and mod-ty of unreality (the imperative, subjunctive moods). There may appear in a s-ce lang-e forms expressing the speaker’s personal attitude. This is the 2nd kind of mod-ty → the subjective mod-ty. It is expressed by a great variety of lang-e means. There’s a spec.class-n of wrds (Modal words) expressing (un-)certainty of the speaker, supposition. 1st of all these are parenthesis. They may be single words: probably, certainly, luckily; phrases: in my opinion, to my mind, to tell the truth, to put it mildly, to be honest; parenthetical clauses: I think, I hope, I doubt, I’m afraid, as john told me and so on. 2. evaluating words- gorgeous, wonderful…(N-s. Adj-s, Adv-s);
1. Synt character → these are tag-questions; 2 Intonation - to transform a statement into supposition (rising tone). In 1 & the same sent the forms of Obj Mod-ty & Subj M. can be used simultaneously. The Obj M is obligatory forevery sent, while Subj M is optional- speaker’s choice. The means of Subj M may strengthen or weaken the meaning of Obj M (I’m sure he’s here. Probably he’s here.)
Modal Vs express diff kinds of mod-ty which shows the relations between the action and the doer. They express a peculiar kind of mod-ty which can be called potential m-ty (the action isn’t performed).
Since there are many means of expressing mod-ty in the s-ce some scholars present the category in the form of the linguistic field.
Parts of Speech. Prenormative - like in Latin 8 PSp-N, prn, participle, V, adv, prep, conj. +Ben Jonson article, + Brightland qualities (adj). His system- names (N), affirmatives (V), qualities (adj), particles (other). Class Scientif G- Sweet - gr meaning, form, function. Declinable\ indeclinable. Decl: 1)N-wrds- N proper, n-prn, n-numeral (cardinal), inf, gerund. 2)Adj-wrds- adj proper, adj-prn, adj-numeral (ordinal), prt 1 &2. 3)V-wrds- finite V, inf, gerund, prt 1& 2, Indecl: adv, prep, conj, interj. System-not consisten. Jespersen -the same principles à5 PSp- N, Adj, Prn (+numerals, pronominal adv-where, why), V(+ verbals=inf, ger,part), Partic (proper-just,too.., prep-s, conj). Structural G r- formal analysis of formal ling unit. Meaning exluded, but form- leading/ (root- white, whiten, whiteness).. Method of nonsense wrds (take into consid the distrib-n of wrds in a sent. Method of substitution (put wrds into the positionof certain wrds). Fries- 4 wrd-classes (67%), 15 gr of function wrds(33%). Substitution diagnostic frames. Fries criticized previous but didn’t give defin of of this gram category. Transformat Gr didn’t classify PSp,preoccupied with Syntax. Rus theory of PSp on the grounds of ideas of Scherba & Vinogradov. Notional wrds have Lex meaning & Gram meaning. LM names concrete individual features of obj, GM describes concepts & notions. à Dif LM but one GM (a tree, a house..- ‘thingness’). Adj- GM of quality. Function wrds (prep, conj)- denote relations b\w wrds, statements. Adv express quality of a quality. Formal properties - 2 kinds- word-changing, word-building. WC affixes- not helpful in the process of class-n ß lang is analytical, WC inflections r polyfunctional & few of them. –S (Nplur, V3pSing, \posses case\), -ed (Past Ind, Pt2, WB in comp adj ‘blue-eyed’), -er (WB in adj, WB in N). WB affixes- rich in them, original (-dom, -hood, -ship), loan (Scand –by, Fr –ess, let, ee). OK 4 distrib wrds into PSp (N- tion, ness, hood, don. Adj- ous, ful, y. V- ate, ise, fy. Ly- N+ly=adj, Adj+ly=adv). Synt Functions r presupposed by the valency & combinatoric abilities of wrds. Complex interrelations b\w wrds in 1 class. à Field Approach by Zernov. Each PSp a field= a center & periphery. (Class N, Proper N, Abstr N, Material N. Pronoun cross (can perform its function), adj cross (are substan-zed, the rich). FA shows interrelations in 1 class & b\w classes.
Theories. ModE-analyt, inflextional (with cases, personal endings). Changesà reconstr of gram type into anal one. Reasons of loss of inflections? Phonetic approach (Fortunatov), the theory of young grammarians- Originally in Germ lang-es the stress of a wrd was freeà understood that in the process of commun-n the root-most imp, contained LMà pronounced more energetically than other parts, stress became fixed on the root, final infl- unstressed à weakly pronounced, dropped. Logical? Contradictions- in Finish stress on the root, but 14 cases, function wrds used when inflections were in blossom. (of stones- êàìíÿ ðîä.ï.). Unsatisfactory. The Theory of Substratum (comparativists). (theory of mixture of lang-es). In case of invasions- to work out means of commun-n b\w tribes. 1 lang- substratum upon which the new lang is developed. OE & Danish= Germ lang-ge group.--> same roots, dif endings (OE-wind, Dan- windr). Diff-ce of inflections- problems àweakly pronounced. Common sense of the theory- development of a lang is regulated also by politic, economic, culture life. Voc is most affected. Theory of progress (Jespersen). Loss of inflect- positive change, to clear the lang of intricate inflections. Helps to economize thinking. Put forward the # of features. 1 Gr forms in analyt l-ge are shorter. -But some analytical forms contain 3 or 4 words. 2Anal l-ge has few gr forms which burden memory- this scarecity of gr forms causes their homonimy. 3the ways of creating gr forms are regular.- In the system of N many irregular forms of plur, Irreg V. 4 Rules governing in Syntax are regular. – The use of great # of prep is fixed. 5Article is praised. The Functional theory (Horn, Barkhudarov)- grammar isn’t easily penetrated by foreign influenceà reasons of reconstr in lang itself. There are ling elements that had lost funct value & can no longer perform their functions à these elements suffered the process of phonetic reduction, dropped. In OE- N had 4 cases, in some types of declention- same inflections à prep-s began to be used, inflect-s- dropped. Contradictions- Eng has bot synt & analyt means (man’s- of a man). Common sense in each of the theories.
The Verb- Mood.. Vinogr: mood expr-s the relation of the action to reality as stated by the speaker. we can represent an action as a real fact, unreal but highly probable, very doubtful. The # of moods- disputable, fluctuates from 2 (Imp excluded) to 16. Tradit # of moods is 3. Feature- the bare infin, can be met in all 3 moods.) Go there. I insist he go there. I go there.) (1)The Ind.M. shows that the speaker represents an action as a real fact. It represents every action as corresponding to reality. Doubts- in the Future of the Ind M the action has not been performed so it doesn’t correspond to reality. But if compare with Subj M - degree of its probability is higher. (1)I’ll come & help you. 2)I would like to come & help you). (2) The Imper M.. Not all scholars (Curme) include it because it is represented by 1 form only which is homonymous to the form of bare infinitive & it has no paradigm. H.Sweet- it has its own gram.m. diff from the Ind. or Subj.M-s. Features: it has no person, number, tense distinctions. it’s used only in 1 type of sent (imper). it has a specific modal meaning of inducement (a command, prohibition, order, request, advice, offer, invitation). The negative form is alw derived with the help of aux. ‘do’ including the V ‘to be’, if with bare inf- negat particle before it (we decided not to go there). It has an analytical construction (to address to the 3d pers). Analytical & synthetic forms. (Let me speak (anal). Speak! (synth).). (3 ) Subj M. - to present an action as unreal, as a supposition. Very old- in OE synthet-ly w\h of inflections àreduced, coincided with the Ind M., homonymy. In early ModE- analyt forms (aux-es should/would, may/might, could). 2 tense forms - express various degrees of probability of an action. Pres Subj- in the form of likelihood, hopefulness, action refers to the Pres, Fut, chance to perform it (. If you invited me to your birthday party I would come). Past Subj- unlikelihood, imposs (perfect forms of V) (If you had invited me I should have come). 2 forms - synth=bare inf (I demand he go there), analyt- pres.subj (should would may could + inf) past (+perf.inf). 2 fields of use: contex free- simple sent to express good will (God bless you!). Cases- subj m homon to ind m.BUT unambig case- 3d pers sing in Ind m (inflex –s). àAttention to gram & lex indicators.(I know he does it. I demand he do it.) Contex bound usage- a variety of dif combinations of forms. 1) In princ clause - it’s necessary, imp, oblige à in subord cl- synth form or analyt should+inf (It is agreed that they discuss the matter right now). 2) in attributive clauses after the N-s: decision, demand, orderà synth or analyt. (My recommendation is that you take your exam in May.) The purpose- gram indic conj that, so that + may/might \ can/could + inf. (She rushed forward so that she might see everything). –conj lest & should+inf (She started running lest she should miss the train). Sequence of tenses: 1) princ & subord cl- simult action à synth form of Past Subj (She looked at me as if she were concealing smth). 2) action in subord follows action of princà in subord would+inf.
The Verb- Voice. 2 approaches to defin. 1 V expresses the relations b\w the doer & the action (G.Gurme, H.Boutsma, Âàðêóäàðîâ ). 2. V expresses the relation b\w the subj & the obj of the action (Ãîðäîí). V is the form of the verb, which shows whether the subject and the object affected by the predicate. Obvious opposition – active (no special indicator) & pas (aux ‘to be’). Pas is represented by tense & aspect forms. (Ex- Indef, Perf, Cont pas: pres- past- future). In E 3 types of pas constr: 1) direct passive-direct obj in AVà subj in PV (was helped by..), 2) indirect pas- derived from the V wh can take non-prep obj in AV: give, ask, send…(he was asked a quest), 3 obligatory parts- sbj, pred, direct obj. No in Rus. 3) prepos passive constr- former prepos obj à sbj in passive (he was laughed at by the boys), 3 parts- sbj, predict, prepos. In Rus start with prep. Not transitivity but ability to take any kind of obj is of importance while derive passive constr. ‘to be +PrtII’ has 2 gram m- 1) passive action performed upon a thing (simple pred) 2) expresses physical\ psychic state (comp nom predict). Criteria. PV if: ‘by-phrase’; adv modif of time, manner, place; perf or cont aspect; +another V in active. PV used in E more frequently, convenient not to mention the doer, or to underline him (…by the wind). In add to PV & AV- Reflexive V. Opponents- RV used after trans v should be treated as direct obj (She washed herself and a child). Supporters in favor- peculiar gram m shows that the action is concentrated un the doer (I wash myself), â ðóñ «-ñÿ». A paradigm \a set of forms united by 1 gram m\ of the RV (V+ myself, himself…). à can accept the idea of 3 voices in E.
Rise of the National Eng lang. MidE period- variation of lang forms on all the levels: pronun, morph, syn and voc. Changes in the social life of the country à develop of Eng capitalist relations, consolidation of isolated areasàneed for national lang, intelligible. Dialects couldn’t perform taskà urgent problem. On the base of Lon D, its leading role- polit role & geograph position of London, on the boarder line b/w Midland & Southern dialects. 14c.- Midland d prevailing in the LD, LD influential in north parts. In OE- West-Sax d -the leading, MidE- LD leading, repres-ed by writings-proclamation of Henry I. Long development, from 14c. 15c-remarkable, book printing (1438), graph innovation (Fr origin). 16c- spreading of LD, 2 spheres where Latin- church, science. Henry8 quarreled with Pope, to replace Latin by Eng, religious uprisings, à relig texts transl into Engl. Science still used Latin in 16c. Renaissance. Movements of purists- against cluttering up of Eng &Latin. End 16c- Engl penetr into science. Some Latin wrds survived. Engl penetr into social life, national lang, intelligible. 17-18cc- development, Eng Bourgeois Rev, Civil war (puritan victory, proclaim of commonwealth). Rise of ling disciplines. Early gr –in 16c, 17c-Johnson, Wallis, 18- Brightland. Infuence of Latin gr- rules of correctness. Mid 18- normative (prescriptive) gr, 2 tasks- - to clear the lang of all irregular, to fix the lang in this state (impracticable). The rules of correctness regulated according to the rules of reason. But often disguised Latin passed the laws of reason again. Orthoepy - the problem of pronunciation. In the 17ñ- treated by Butler and Cooper, in the 18c- Jones & Walker. Another branch of ling-cs- lexicography, task- to fix the voc of the lang in dictionaries. Earliest dict-s - bilingual- Lat-Eng, Fr-Eng. Soon- of difficult words- loans, archaic wrds, slang. 18c – first monoling dictionary (meaning). B.Johnson edited his work (+illustrations of w-usage). During the 17c- a # of disciplines- gr, orthoepy, lexicography. 18c- normalization (gram forms abused- lesser).The voc enriched by loans- Roman, Scandin, Norman. Not typical Germ lang, but Romanp-Germ.
GVS. problems concerning its periodization, causes & directions. 1 Periodizatio n. - disputable chron frame. Martinet & Trnka- 12-13cc when the lengths of vowels lost their phonemic value & began to be positionally conditioned. But no proofs of this assumption. Wyld analyzed writings of 14,15,16 c of low-educated ppl, close to phonetic spelling. à GVS 14-16c. Rastorguev a (convincing)-14-18, some spelling changes indicated the beginning. 2 Reasons - suppositions. Horn & Lehnert- caused by a peculiar way of pronun-n of vowels. Pronun in a high tone contributed to its narrower articulation. Tried to prove- referred to similar phonetic facts of the ModE. But 4 long vowels during the GVS broke into the dipht-s (unanalyzed). Plotki n - connected the results of the GVS 1)with the loss of the phonemic character of length of vowels and, 2)with the development of a great # of monosyl wrds in MidE which appeared after the loss of the final unstressed vowels. à appeared pairs of wrds differed only in the length of the root vowel: rod /o/- rod /open o:/. The same spelling à to overcome such ambiguous cases, the lang began to develop a new kind of opposition, not b/w long & short monopht-s, but b/w a short monopht & dipht. 3.Direction - which vowels first involved- narrowest, widest? 2 theories- push-chain’ (started with the widest a:, open o:, ٤:. Every step of their narrowing pushed the neighboring vowel to a higher position in order to avoid coincidence. Vowels i:, u: (had nothing to narrow into) developed into the dipht-s ai, au.) and ‘ drag-chain’ (with the 2 narrowest vowels which broke into the dipht-s. Dragged their nearest neighbours on to their now empty position.) Hard to say which theory is convincing. GVS changed system of long vowels, their quality, narrowed or developed into diphth-gs. ‘Indep’ change- no apparent phonet conditions. Affected stressed long v in any position. i:> ai, e:> i:, ٤: >e:>i:, a:> e:> ei, open o:> o:> ou, o:> u:, u:> au. No regular spelling changes. Digraphs ‘ee’, ‘ei’, ‘ie’ for /e:/, ‘ea’ (in 16c) for /٤:/. Merging of /e:/ and /٤:/ in /I:/ made their graphical distinctions useless: meet- meat. ‘oo’ for /o:/, ‘oa’ for /open o:/- useful, indicate 2 dif sounds in ModE: ‘oo’-for /u:/, ‘oa’ –for /ou/. Length of a vowel indicated- final mute ‘e’. -produced the position of an open syllable fro the root vowel. Names and values of some letters changed- MidE A/a:/ > EmodE A /ei/. Gap b/w the spok and writ forms. Cases needed explanation. The origin of the dipht /ei/ in the wrds ‘great, break’?- Jespersen-common intermediate stage of long vowels /a:/ and /٤:/- ٤: > e: >i:, a: > æ: > ٤:> e: > ei. It caused pronounc-n of diphth /ei|. distribution of long vowels was changed by GVS- Dipht-s /ai, ei, ou, au/ could be met in a number of positions à reason for development of homophones: plain (voc of fric)- plane (GVS).
Vocalization of ‘R’. Source of new long monopht-s and dipht-s in EmodE. The sonorant /r/ - influence upon the preceding vowel, made it more open. The cluster /er/> /ar/. Spelling reflected this phonetic change: derk> dark. The spelling ‘ear’ was adopted: heart. In some wrds, containing /er/, the change into /ar/ didn’t take place: certain, perfect. In some -the change was reflected in spelling: learn, early. In some wasn’t- clerk, sergeant. In MidE /r/ like the Rus /r/, -Johnson noticed. In EmodE /r/ occurring after a vowel, changed into the neutral /ə/, which, being added to the preceding vowelà dipht or a long monopht. MidEà EmodE: o+r> o:, a+r >a:, i+r> ə:, e+r> ə:, u+r> ə:, ə+r> ə, i:+r> aiə, e:+r> iə, ٤: +r> iə, ٤ə, a:+r> ٤ə, o:+r> open o:, o:+r> uə, u:+r>auə. \r\ to make the vowel more open, Shift- narrower. (٤:> e:+r>٤ə, like in ‘bear’). In other cases voc-n was at the final stage of the Shift of long ٤: ٤:> e:> i:+r> iə, like in ‘fear, hear’. Contribution- appeared new dipht-s: / iə/, / uə/, /٤ə/ and a new monopht / ə:/.
Traditions of English Orthography. For centuries the vowel and consonant sys have been affected by changes, while the rules of spelling (sp-ing) were regulated once, in the EModE period, after the Norman conquestà introduced Fr graphic traditions. 2 kinds of innovations: 1) new letters 2) new digraphs to denote vowels (v) and consonants (c). I. The new letters -all consonantal. 1) The letter [Ʒ] (in OE to denote phonemes ([g], [γ], [γ’]) à replaced in ME by the letters [G] to denote the velar stop [g] and letter [Y] to denote the palatal fricative. 2) The letter ‘V’ to denote the sound [v]. The letter ‘v’ was often treated as an allograph to the letter ‘u’à variants of sp-ing of the same word: over-ouer. àanalyze the distribution of the – b\w two vowels like [v], before the following cons - [u]. 3) The letter ‘Q’, always accompanied by ‘U’-for reflecting [k] or cluster [kw] (‘quarter’). 4) The letter “Z” to denote the c [z]- used seldom, in the initial position of loans (zoo, zone), in wrds of the Eng origin the letter ‘S’ is preferable (choose, lose),5) The letter ‘K’ - sound [k] for which in OE the letter ‘C’ was used. In ME ‘C’ represented 2 sounds: [s] before front v (city), and [k] before back v (course). 6) the letter ‘J’ - the affricate [dƷ] in the initial position; June. For the same purpose - the letter ‘G’ (before front v – image) and the diagraph ‘dg’ (bridge). II. New digraphs - both in the system of v and c: 1) The OE letters “þ” and “ð” replaced by the digr “th”: OE þis- this ME. 2) The digr ‘ch’ -for affricate [tʃ] (may be‘ch’ penetrated through Fr loans as chamber, chair, where represented [ʃ]). 3) The sound [ʃ] in ME repres by ‘sh’ or ‘sch’: ship. 4) ‘gh’ - to reflect the fricatives [x], [x’], spelt in OE through ‘H’, which was also used to represent the sound [h]: OE liht-light ME. But vocal-n of these fric-s in the ME it useless. 5) ‘ou’ was adopted in ME to indicate [u:]. From Fr loans like “trouble, couch” was transferred: OE ūt – out ME. In the initial position the diagraph ‘ow’ was more preferable for the same purpose (explained by ornamental considerations: OE cū-cow ME. 6) To indicate the length of a v à doubling of a letter, in 2 cases: ee for [e:], oo – [o:]: OE bræth-breeth ME. 7) Starting with ME, the diagraph ‘ie’ began to be used to represent [e:]. (from Fr). First in such loans as “chief, relief”, à into native Eng, like “field” (OE fēlf).8) Starting with EModE, the final mute ‘e’ - indicator of a long root v: OE hām – ME hom – Early ME home. 9) In the 16c the d-ph ‘ea’ for [ε:]: OE æle- ME elch – Early ME each. Later, after GVS [e:] and [ε:] had merged in [I:], their graphic distinctions lost significance. In ModE [i:] can be indicated in 5 ways: by the digr-s ‘ie’, ‘ee’, ‘ea’, ‘ei’ and with the help of the final mute ‘e’: field, feet. 10) 16c - ‘oa’ for [Ɔ:] in order to distinguish it from [o:] spelt as ‘oo’: OE rād – ME rod – Early ME road. In ModE ‘oo’ and ‘oa’ still represented 2 diff sounds. 11) In ME the letter ‘O’ - for short [u]. Thus, to shape the end of a word, the letter ‘y’ - for [I]: OE daç-ME dai, day. Digr ‘ow’ - in the final position instead the former ‘ou’: OE nū-ME nou, now. The OE cluster ‘hw’ underwent graphic metathesis in ME à spelt as ‘wh’: OE hwæt – ME what. The numerous sound changes of the Early ME period increased the gap b\w Eng sp-ing and pronunc-n. Orthography can be regulated by phon, morph, history principles. OE spell-ng based on phon pr, was correspondence b\w a phoneme & its graph present-n. In ModE such few cases- lost, let, net, lot. Morph pr –not typical for Eng, but for Rus- even reduced vowels are spelt in their full form. In ModE orth-y history pr –domin, in accor with which rules of spel-ng were conditioned by sound changes. 2 kinds of rules in ModE spell-ng- 1 those developed on the original grounds, 2 etymol rules, reflecting spell-ng of loans.
Principles of classif-n of Phras Units. Many terms for ph\u, but set expr-n- best- it stresses the specific qualities of a ph\u: stability, idiomaticity, integrity, synt indivisibility. Central problem is of criteria distinguishing them from free w-gr. Øàõì è Ôîðòóí singled out- stability, idiomaticity, function & context. Criterion of stability means that components of ph\u follow each other in the definite constant order, there can be no substitution of them. Criticism- many ph\u lack absolute stability & admit wide variations. Cr of idiomaticity - based on the lack of motivation. Vinogradov singled out degrees of idiom-ty: -Ph fusion (ñðàùåíèå), non-motivated at all, to kick the bucket. –Ph unity, w.groups which can be perceived through the metaphor, metonym meaning, to wash one’s dirty linen in public. –Ph collocations, stable set groups which still have a clear motivation but a strictly limited voc, to shrug one’s shoulder. Criticism- no distinct boarder line can be found b\w gr 1&2, 2&3. Cr of function presupposes that ph\u are gram & styl-ly inseparable, in a sentence behave like a single synt form, He wrote it in a long run. Criticism-the same ph\u may be inseparable in 1 type of synt context & separable in another, take care- care was taken. Cr of context - ph\u have a fixed meaning (unlike free w gr). Àìîñîâà subdivided into:- phrases, -idioms. Phrases- 2member gr in which 1 of of the mem has a spec meaning dependant on the 2nd (small hours= early). Idioms are charact-ed by idiomaticity of the whole gr (red tape). Criticism- non-variability of context doesn’t necessarily imply spec meaning of the component. Some w-gr aren’t stable, although have various degree of idiomat-ty. Many cl-ns before Kunin’s. Smith & Ball -on the basis of Rhyme, alliteration, contrast. Ôîðòóíàòîâ &Øàõìàòîâ paid attention to syntactic analisys of ph\u à structural cl was produced. Diachronic cl by Larin reflects 3 stages a unit passes on the way of becoming a phr unit- 1 a free word- group. 2 metaphorical phrase. 3 idiom. Some phr units had been found spontaneously (never been free w-g). Vinogradov’s cl is synchronic. Based on the motivation of the unit, i.e. the relationship b\w the meaning of the whole & the meaning of its component parts. The degree of motivation is correlated with the rigidity, indivisibility & semantic unity of the expr-n. à 3 types of ph\u are suggested- phr fusions, phr units, phr combinations. Smirnitskii - the reversed V’s cl-n)- 1 traditional phrases. 2 phr combination with the faded ph units (to fall in love). 3 idioms wh have no motivation (as dead as a doornail). Kunin has many cl-ns, the main -based upon the combination of functional, semant features: 1nominative ph\u. 2communicative ph\u-proverbs & sayings. 3ph units with combined function: -interjectional ph units, -modal ph units (as sure as I’m sitting here). Acc to the character: -expression with a variable verbal or nominal elements (not to stir\lift a finger), - expression with variable pronominal element (to pull sb’ s leg), - expr which combines 2 types of variability (to give s.o(nom) a piece of one’s mind (pronom). Àë¸õèíà - ph\u divided into14 core patterns. Most productive- 1N+N (foot-force), 2 Adj+N (heavy father), 3 N+Adj (to bleed white), 4 Npossessive case+ N (the devil’s delight), 5V+N (kick the bucket), 6 Prep+N, 7 N+prep+N (the king-of birds-eagle), 8 Adv+Adj (so so), 9 Adj+Adj (pretty good), 10 V+Adj (to go wild). Each of these patters has certain derivational ability.
Affixation & Compounding. Process of making wrds. The most productive ways of w-building. Aff-n –formation of wrds by adding derivational af-s to dif types of stems. 2 degrees- if wrd is formed by the application of 1 deriv af- 1st degree, if 2 stages of coining- 2nd(haste-hasty- hastily). Subdiv into suffixation, prefixation. In ModE suf-n is mostly character of N and adj formation, pref-n-of V. Suf-es- more imp in different-ing PSp. S-x - morpheme that follows a stem. 1 Acc to what PSp added: -N-forming (ment, eer, er), -adj-froming (nt, full), -Verbal (fy), -Adv-f (ly, wards), Numeral (teen, ty, fold). 2 Acc to what kind of stem added: -diverbal (reader, able, ing), -dinominal (to N, handful, girlish, beautiful), -diadject (bluish, ly). Acc to stylistic reference: -neutral, occur in wrds of dif lex-styl layers,(ish, dom), -styl colored, terms (asteroid, diminutive –birdy,, aunty). 3 Acc to productivity: -Productive (for prod neologisms, ness,ly), -non-prod (no neologisms, ous), -dead (origin may be defined by means of diachron analys, litt le -very litt). Pr-x - affix that precedes the stem. Acc to stem: -diverbal (remake), -dinominal (unbutton), -diparticipial (unknown). Acc to semantic: -negative (un, non, in), -reversetive (dis, un), -pejorative (misinform, pseudoscientific), -pref of time, order (pre-war, post-war), -p. of repetition (re-),- of locative meaning (super, trans, sub). Acc to styl reference: -neutral (outlive, outdo), -colored, mostly bookish (supermodern, by-lingual). Acc to degree of produc-ty: -produc (àneol-sms, re, post, super), -non-prod (dis, mis, fore), -dead (make reveal through etimol analysis, appear, accept). Pref & suf may have dif lex-sem categories, polysemantic (stony, bushy- dif meanings, but of qualityàpolysemy). Synonymy of aff: er- reflects a more general action, ist-doer of an action in the sphere of politivs. Er, eer- variants (1-neutral, 2-negative connot). Acc to origin:-native (dom, hood), -foreign (Fr, Latin). Many modern native-from OE aff. Derivat & Funct aff. Similarities-they are often homonymous. Funct aff serve to convey gram m.--> build dif forms of 1 wrd. (nerar-nearer-nearest). Dervi aff-to supply stem with components of lex m.--> form dif wrds.Ex:suff –y creates adj from N stems, but lex m. is dif (bushy- full of, stony-composed of). In the system of E wrds- hybrid wrds (wrds made up of elements derived from dif lang-s), based on 2 dif patterns: -foreign stem+native aff (color (Latin)+less), -native +foreign (drinkable). Compound wrd - consist of 2-3 stems, main quality- integrity. Subdivided: -endocentric, -exocentric. Endoc. char-zed by attrib relations within components- in a structure can distinguish a 1determinant & 2determinatum (1sun2set, 1door2bell). Exoc- sbj of idiomaticity, no logical center (killjoy). B\w 1 & 2 many semant relations exist: -functional (raincoat), -local (garden party- party in a garden), -comparison (gold fish), -temporal (night club), -sex denoting (she-goat). Debates about principles of differentiation b\w CW & phrase. àDif criteria (non-effective). Graphic c: if a wrd has a solid spelling-wrd, if a unit written separately- phrase.?but we can spell diff-ly (ice-cream, ice cream). Phonological (Bloomfield): if a single stress- wrd, if a double stress- wrd-combination.?but many wrds with double stress (self-control). Or the position of a stress may indicate 2 dif meanings (blackboard-compound, black board-w comb). Semantic (Jespersen, Kroisinger): if a unite- idiomaticà compound (chatterbox), if not- w-comb (doorbell). Morphological: if no addit attrib can be added to a d-ntàCW (a very blackbird). C of transformation is used to define the degree of isiomaticity of a CW-non-idiom are easily transformed, idiomatic-not (toothpaste- paste for teeth). Classif-n acc to: Type of composition (1compound formed by juxtaposition of elements \sunset\, 2 with a vowel or cons as a linking element \speedometer\, 3with linking elements-prep, conj stems \son-in-law, up-to-date\). Structure (1 consis of simple stems \filmstar\, 2derived stems \chain-smok er \, 3 clipped stem \maths-mistress\, 4abbrev as a stem which is read as a full-stem \X-mas\, 5 1 of the components- compound stem \wastepaper basket\. PSp:1 compound N-N+N \sunbeam\, Vstem +N \looking glass\, Adj+N \blackboard\, V+postpositive \black out\. 2Comp Adj- Nstem +Adj stem \seasick\, Adj+Adj \red hot\, N+PrtI \peace-loving\, Adj+PrtI \hard-working\, N+PrtII \man-made\. Derivat compounds are based on some productive patterns. 1 set DC with –er \left-hander\, 2 set DC with –ed \kind-heated\. 1 may distinguish into 4 patterns: Nstem+Vstem+er= mill owner, N+N+er=honeymooner, Numeral stem +Nstem+er= first nighter, V+Adj+er= do-gooder. 2nd: Adj+N+ed= absentminded, Numeral+N+ed= one-eyed, N+N+ed=heart shaped.
Voc Paradigm. Vocab- syst formed by the sum total of all the wrds of the lang. debates about whether vocab is a system. 1) Paradigmatic (=in lang system)/ vertical relations - of 2 kinds: exterior and intertior. Exterior: relation b/w diff independent wrds, united by their meaning (synon-s, ant-s). Lexico-semantic groups(?) –same part of speechhigher level than syn-s. ex: names of means of tranp-t. Interior: diff mean of one and the same polysem-c wrd (metaph,metonymy) 2) Syntagmatic (=in speech)-horizontal relations: relat-s b/w wrds in a certain stretch of speech and context. Context- min stretch of speech necessary and suffic-t to determine which the possible meanings is realized. Synt-c relat-ns are studied by means of contextual, distributional (combinatorial abilities of wrds) and transformational (transform of diff structures) analysis. 1) and 2) are interrelated. Homonyms –wrds identical in sound & spelling (or in 1 aspect), but dif in meaning (bank=shore, bank=institution). H-accidental creations, source of humor. Single out: H proper - same in sound & spelling. Homophones - same in sound, dif in spelling (piece, peace). Homographs - same in spelling, dif in sound (tear {tea}v., tear {tie}n). Sources of H: 1 Phonetic changes-at 1st pronounced diff-lyàdeveloped identical sound forms (night, knight\in OE k pronounced\). 2Borrowing-in a group rite,n-write,v-right,adj- 2,3 native orig, 1Latin. 3 W-building, conversion (same sound & spel, but refer to dif PSp, to comb-comb). 4 Shortening-type of w-building (fan=admirer,ßfrom fanatic.Its homonym-Latin fan=device 4 cooling).5 Sound imitation- mew-sound, sea gull.!!!In all cases –accidentally,conversion-exception,(1 from the other)! 6 Originate form dif meaning of 1 wrd. Classif-n by Smirnitsky: 1full homonyms (wrds of the same category of PSp, have the same paradigm \when wrds r unchangeable\, match,n-game, short piece of wood. 2Partial h, 3 subgr: -Simple lex-gram partial h, belong to the same PSp, paradigms have 1 identical form (found,v, found,v –Past Ind), -Compl lex-gram partial h, dif PSp,1 identical form in paradigms (rose,n, rose Past ind.), - Partial lex h, same PSp, identical in corresponding forms (to hang- hung- hung, to hang- hanged- hanged).
Modes of Meaning Change (Spec, Gen, Metaph, Meton). The change of the semant structure of a wrd is a source of quality & quantitative develop of the voc. 4 types of semant change. 1Spec-n, investigated by Nikitin- a process when a wrd acquires a new meaning which is narrower logically in its reference to the basic meaning. Ex: Case- 1occurence, 2gram category, 3 instance of a disease. 1-general, others- specified. These are all cases- medical, juridical, gram. S-n, its denot change may be accompanied by connot modifications, which can be expressed in the process- amelioration & pejoration, they are socially determined. Amelior- queen=woman (midE)à female monarch, royal woman. Pejo-midE knave= boy, servant boy, rascal. S-n used in terminology: cell=biological cell, prison, room of monks. 2Gener-n - the meaning of a new notion is broader than that of the original. ’Ready’ in midE=ready for horse-riding, meant ‘ready for a ride’à ready, prepared for sth. (Ex:Gold=çîëîòî (gener), ìåäàëü (spec)). 3 In ling-cs- transform of meaning based on associations of similarity or on contiguity. Metaphor - a transfer of name based on the assoc of similarity, hidden comparison. Functional class-n: -poetic (a delicate rose), -linguistic\trite, if frequently used in a lang may loose its expressive form (leg of a table), -dead, when metaphorical basis has been lost. Semantic class-n: -met determined by the similarity of shape (a ball=short thick man), -simil of appearance (a flower- a beautiful woman), -simil of behavior (a tiger- brave), -simil of quality, -antropomorphical (a needle-eye-óøêî), -analogy b\w space & time (long speech), -transition of proper names into common (Vandals- 1germ tribes, 2who cause damage). 4 Metonymy - refer to one thing as if it were some other (read Shakespeare). Class-n: casual, local, temporal, attributal, synecdoche. These are general. Within the 1 type patterns:-symmetric (committee –êîìèòåò, çàñåäàíèå êîìèòåòà), -asymmetric, have only 1 way of realization, an action is used as a result of an action (investigation-èññëåäîâàíèå, îáúåêò èññëåä). Synecdoche- a part is substituted for a whole or a whole for a part (police \civil force, a man\ came to arrest him). Ling metaph & meton are diff from literary devices: 1 comparison is forgotten, no other name for a thing (foot of a mountain), 2- author’s imagination. Voc- flexible part of the lang. Causes of semant change:-Lling- influencing the process of voc adaptation may be of paradig and syntagmatic character; in dealing with them we have to do with the constant interaction and interdependence of voc units in lang. -Extraling.lang affected by social, polit, econom, cultural changes à changes in notions, influence the semant aspect of lang. (black box- term of aviation, unit the principle of action of which we don’t know).
Paradigm relations (Syn, Ant). SYN - imp expressive means, function- to represent same phenomenon in dif shades & variations. Problem of criteria. Conceptual criterion: S-wrds of the same category pf PSp conveying the same concept but differing either in shades of meaning or in styl char-cs. Criticised-use of the term ‘concept’ makes it extraling definition. Semantic c.: suggests method of analys syn with the help of dictionary definitions (info from dict-s is analyzed comparatively). C of interchangeability: S-wrds which r interchangeable at least in some contexts. Criticised. Each S creates entirely new situation. à Dif to accept it as a criterion. If they r interch- useless in the voc. Wrds with half-erased connot, wh can be substituted 1 for another, but not totally interch. Classif-n: Vinogradov- 3 types- ideographic (convey same concept, dif in shades of m), -stylistic (dif in styl chara-cs), -absolute (coincide in all shades & styl char-cs). Absolute S- anomalous, temporaryàvoc sys tends to get rid of them or develop differentiat char-cs. Term ‘shades of m’- vague. No rigid diff b\w syn differing in their shades & in styl char-cs. There are numerous syn which are distinguished by both shades & styl coloring. àsubdivision into ideogr & styl- open to?. There wrds wh are rude, too impolite à euphemisms. Dictated by social convention. Ex: lavatory= powder room, restroom, pregnancy= interesting condition, delicate condition, expecting. E.used to avoid social taboos. Oldest type of syn. Used long before the need to describe shades. In the Christian religion-devil became taboo=the prince of darkness, the evil one. Taboos connected with death- die=to pass away, ti kick the bucket, to join the silent majority. Mental disease- mad= insane, mentally unstable. Other source of S- borrowed from Fr, by means of all w-forming processes. ANT - wrds of the same lang, same PSp& same semant field, identical in style, buttheir denotative meanings render contrary notions. Contradictory- notions opposed & denying each other (alive-dead) if use ‘not’0semant equivalent. Contrary – opposed but they are gradable (love-liking-indifference- antipathy – hate). Class-n based on morph approach- absolute (right-wrong), -derivational (+ negative affix) happy-unhappy. Conversives- denote same situation as viewed from dif points. (buy-sell, give- receive). The substitution of a C doesn’t change the meaning, but necessary to make synt changes (He gave her flowers.- She received flowers from him). Homonyms –wrds identical in sound & spelling (or in 1 aspect), but dif in meaning (bank=shore, bank=institution). H-accidental creations, source of humor. Single out: H proper - same in sound & spelling. Homophones - same in sound, dif in spelling (piece, peace). Homographs - same in spelling, dif in sound (tear {tea}v., tear {tie}n). Sources of H: 1 Phonetic changes-at 1st pronounced diff-lyàdeveloped identical sound forms (night, knight\in OE k pronounced\). 2Borrowing-in a group rite,n-write,v-right,adj- 2,3 native orig, 1Latin. 3 W-building, conversion (same sound & spel, but refer to dif PSp, to comb-comb). 4 Shortening-type of w-building (fan=admirer,ßfrom fanatic.Its homonym-Latin fan=device 4 cooling).5 Sound imitation- mew-sound, sea gull.!!!In all cases –accidentally,conversion-exception,(1 from the other)! 6 Originate form dif meaning of 1 wrd. Classif-n by Smirnitsky: 1full homonyms (wrds of the same category of PSp, have the same paradigm \when wrds r unchangeable\, match,n-game, short piece of wood. 2Partial h, 3 subgr: -Simple lex-gram partial h, belong to the same PSp, paradigms have 1 identical form (found,v, found,v –Past Ind), -Compl lex-gram partial h, dif PSp,1 identical form in paradigms (rose,n, rose Past ind.), - Partial lex h, same PSp, identical in corresponding forms (to hang- hung- hung, to hang- hanged- hanged).
Ways of Replenishment (Neol, Abbrev, Borrowed). Being an adaptive sys the voc is constantly adjusting itself to the changing conditions of human commun-n. New notions appear, requiring new wrds to name them. New wrds, expressions or neologisms are created fro new things. Neologism - a newly coined wrd or phrase or a new meaning for an existing wrd. Problem- which wrds are considered to be new? The most rational point- N-wrds that appeared in the last years of the previous generation. Reasons for N origination: - polit changes, -the spere of law& police (lie-detector, plastid bomb), -science & technology, -innovations (fast-food). Way of forming N: - creating (sound imitation), -borrowing (Fr, Germ, Spanish), -combining (affixation, w-composition). Prefixes: para psychologist, docu mercial, psycho linguistic, intro, maxi, mini. Suffixes: drive- in, worka holic, eer, st. Compounding (rhyme c- brain-rain), Shortening (landing) strip. Abbre v- w-ds formed from the initial letters of each of the parts of a phrasal term. 2 types: - Acronyms, a wrd-comb pronounced as a wrd, popular esp in polit & techn voc (NATO — the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, National Organisation for Women – NOW, homon to odinary wrd). – Alphabetisms, pronounced as a series of letters, retain correlation with prototype (B.B.C- the British Broadcasting Corporation, SOS).Specific type- represented by Lat abb which sometimes are not read as Lat w-ds but substituted by Eng equiv-s (id est-that is, exempli gratia- for ex). Graphical abb - symbol used instead of wrds in written engl, for economy of space (gvt- government, DC-district of Columb). -A specifically Eng pattern- the 1 element is a letter and 2- a complete w-d (A-bomb).The contracted form is monosem, its prototype- polysemy (prep=homework, preparation=getting ready with a homework, homework). Blends- formed by joining together 2 wrds. 2 types depending upon the prototype phrases with wh they can be correlated: -Additive (consisting of complete stems (smoke+fog=smog, smoke +haze=smaze). –Restrictive (attrib phrase where the 1 element serves as modifier of the 2, cinematographic+ panorama= Cinerama). Borrowed - taken from another lang and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning acc to the standards of Eng. Came in dif times. Early Latin b-ngs, 1c BC (butter, chalk, kitchen). In 5c AD- a few Celtic w-ds penetrated (cradle, London). In 7c AD- christianisation, many religious terms from Latin (priest, nun). End 7c- mid 11c- Scandinavian w-ds: N (window, husband, law), Adj(ugly, weak), V (call, take, die). Scand w-ds are similar in pronunc with anglo-sax. Many scand w begin from sk- skill, skin, ski, skirt, sky. In 1066-Norman Conq, England- bilingual. Fr was official. Fr w-ds: -administrative, -military terms (army, officer), -educational (pupil, pencil, library), -w of everyday life (dinner, river, uncle). In Renaissance period- from Lat, Greek, connected with science (univer, professor), Italian (piano, opera, violin). 18-20c – the basis of w was dif due to colonial expansion: Indian (pundit), Arabic (sherbet), Chinese. Rus layers: -prerevolut (before 1917), vodka, valenkis, pelmenis, -sovietisms, preserve only rus meaning (polit-bureau, 5-year-plan), -perestroika period. Degree of assimilation depends on: -length of the period during wh the w has been used, -importance for commun-n, -frequency of usage. à3 groups: 1Completely assim- found in all layers of older assim-ed w, follow all phonetic, morph standards of Eng., take an active part in w-derivation, formation. 2Partly assim-a) not assim semant-ly as they denote notions peculiar to the country from wh came (sombrero, rouble), b) not assim gram-ly \crisis- crises\, c) not assim phonetically. 3Barbarisms- from other lang not assim in any way. Classified: foreign clothes, foreign titles (rajah), food & drink (vodka), transport. Criteris: strange pronunciation, spelling. Enter lasng in 2 ways- through oral & written speech. Types of assim: -phonet (when foreign sounds are replaced by the closest Eng sounds), -grammat (when loans acquire new gram paradigm), -Semant (preserve all the primary meanings.
American Engl. AE is essentially south-Engl standard of the 17-18c. Differs from Brit Eng in pronun, grammar, voc. Variants - regional varieties possessing a literary form. Dialects - varieties of the English language peculiar to some districts and having no normalised literary form.Integration of dif dialect. First settlers- from the south & east of Eng. In 18c- group of the Scottish came. Diff-es in A speech represented diff-ces of BE from the very beginning. With the development of the modern means of commun-n the lex diff-es b\w the 2 variants show a tendency to decrease. Am-sms penetrate into Standard Eng and Britishisms come to be widely used in Amer speech. 3,ain types of Amer pronun: East, Southern & Gen Am. Gen Am is the formal speech used by radio, TV, in scientific, business spheres. GenAm is wuite neutral variesty. Phonetic traits: {r} is more sonorous, {r} is dropped in the East Am pronunc. {t} disappear after {r}-certainly. {t} in position before {w} turns into glottal stop \tha(t) one\. Pronun of {hw} instead of {w}-which \hwich\. {h} is dropped- she loved (h)im. {j} is dropped after t, d, n, s, z- st u dent. {sh} is turned into {zh} in final syllables of wrds on –ion (excursion). {ƞ} simplified into {n}. {ǣ} pronounced in ‘task’, ‘grass’. Grammar - ‘will’, ‘would’- universal indicators of future, diff-es in the system of irreg V (get-got- gotten). Voc acc to PSp: N-polit terms (dark horse), culture (cinemactor), military terms, slang-w, political slang (favourite son), economic slang (greenbacks), clothes (a flop). Verbs- literary, -slang.
Phonetic SD. Dealing with s-cs we should use the term individual style that is indiv.manner of the author to use lang.means to achieve the effect he desires, it is a combination of lang.units (EM and SD), peculiar to a given writer which makes his works easily recognizable. The EM of a lang are those phon, morph, word-building, lex, phraseol and syntac forms which exist in language-as-a-system for the purpose of logical and/or emotional intensification of the utterance. SD - conscious literary use of some of the facts of the lang, i.e the most essential structural & semant features of the lang forms are viewed as generalizations (carry additional info- emotive, logical). Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature, by things, by people and by animals. 2 types: Direct O is contained in words that imitate natural sounds, as ding-dong, cuckoo .Indirect O is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense (rustling of a curtain). Unlike alliteration, IO demands some mention of what makes the sound. Alliteration –SD wh aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence - lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds. In poetry. Does not bear any lexical or other meaning. Supports the author’s idea with some emotional atmosphere.. Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. In verse - at the end of the lines. Tyoes: The full R presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable. Incomplete R, 2 main groups: vowel rhymes and consonant rhymes. In vowel R the vowels of the syllables in words are identical, but the consonants may be different. Consonant rhymes – vice versa. Eye-rhyme, where the letters and not the sounds are identical (result of historical changes). Models: 1. couplets – when the last words of 2 successive lines are rhymed. 2. triple rhymes –aaa. 3. cross rhymes – abab. 4. framing or ring rhymes – abba. Internal rhyme -rhyming words are placed within the lines, breaks the line into 2 parts. àFunctions: dissevering and consolidating. Rhythm exists in all spheres of human activity. as SD is - combination of the ideal metrical scheme and the variations of it. It is a periodicity. Can find in prose where the unit of measure-not syllable, but a structure, w-conmb, sequence of wds. The peculiar property of prose rhythm is that it occurs only in relatively short spans of text. Prose rhythm, unlike verse rhythm, lacks consistency.
Functional Styles. FS is a patterned variety of literary text characterized by the typification of its components, supra-phrasal units (SPU), in which the choice and arrangement of language media are presupposed by the purpose of commun-n. Belles-lettre, Publisitic, Newspaper, Scientific Prose, of Offic Doc-s. Stable system, but change from 1 period to another. Belles-lettres style, function - aesthetico-cognitive. Aim- to call aesthetic feelings of pleasure and promote cognitive process. It’s a term for three substyles - lang of poetry (verse), emotive prose (fiction), lang of drama. Linguistic features which of the belles-lettres style are: 1. Genuine imagery, achieved by purely ling devices. 2. The use of words in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary meaning, 3. A vocab which will reflect the author's personal attitude to things or phenomena. 4. an individual selection of vocabulary and syntax, 5. The introduction of the typical features of colloquial lang. Poetry, features: Rhythmic and phonetic arrangement of the utterance, Syntax & semantics comply with the restrictions imposed by the rhythmic pattern, Fresh, unexpected imagery. Emotive prose: the imagery is not so rich, combination of liter & colloq variants, spoken & written varieties (monologue, dialogue), the use of elements from other styles, detached constr,& other way of combining sent (gap-sent). Modes of narration: author’s narration, speech of the char, reported speech. Drama - lang of plays- dialogue, not the reproduction of norms of colloq lang. It is mainly a stylized type of the spoken variety of language (simple syntax, elliptical constructions.). Publicistic S. Sphere- mass media, aim- to influence publ opinion, to persuade. Features in common with scientif prose & emotive: logical synt structure, emotional appeal is achieved by the use of wds with emotive meaning, use of imagery.3 substyles: oratory, the essay, articles. Oratorical S, purpose- persuasion. Features: direct address to the audience, sometimes contractions (won’t), colloq wds, parallel constr, suspense (main idea is not said till the end), rhetorical quest, quest-in-the-nar (closer contact). Intonation. The essay. literary composition of moderate length on philosophical, social, aesthetic or literary subjects. Touches the subject on the surface- doesn’t go very deep. Features: brevity of expression, the use of the first person singular, which shows a personal approach, a rather expanded use of connectives, which help the process of grasping the essence of ideas, e motiv e wds, similes and sustained metaphors. Article, all the features of publ style. But the type of magazine affects the choice of SDs. (in scientific-few emotive wrds). Polit magazine articles- bookish words, neologisms, traditional word-combinations, emphatic constructions and parenthesis are more frequent here than in newspaper articles. Newspaper S. Sphere: mass media restricted by press (lang of newsp & governmental magazines). Function: to inform. Aim: to comment, to inform of certain political, cultural, economic events; to influence the public opinion on political or other matter. Basic newsp features. à Headline - title, function- to inform briefly, short, catchy. Syntax: use of declarative, interrogative sent, elliptical sent. Editorial - leading article, comment on the event of the day. Purpose- to give the editor’s opinion. Appeal to mind & feelings (emotionally colored lang, colloq). Almost all Sds. Use allusion, periphrasis. Advertisements. Function-to inform. Attract attention by all means- graph, styl, synt, lex. Voc- neutral+ emotive wds. Voc of the newspaper writing - neutral, common lit. Features: spec polit & econ term \socialism\, non-term polit voc \unity, peace\, newsp cliché \pressing problem\, abbrev, neologisms. Gram peculiarities: complex sent, verbal constr. Scientific Prose. Sphere: science activity. Function: to give logical progress of some idea. Aim: to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts. Style: very objective, precise, unemotional. Features: logical sequence of utterance, use of terms specific to a branch, use of foot-notes, impersonality (use of passive constr). Style of Offic Doc-s. Sphere: business, jurisdiction. Function: instructive, regulative. Aim: to reach agreement between two parties. Substyles: commercial papers, diplomatic doc-s, legal doc-s, military doc-s. Peculiarities: cliché, terms, set expr by which each substyle can be recognized, abbrev, contractions (Gvt), use of wds in their dictionary meaning, no emotive wds. SYntact features: - compositional patterns of the variants of this style (in letters- heading with address, date, name of the addressee.- arrangement of utterance (the whole doc can be as 1 sent).
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