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The term “Pragmatics” was introduced by philosophers (Morris Ch. Signs, Language and behavior). It is considered with practical results and values, treating things in a matter of fact or practical way. Modern semiotics dealing with the problem of sign determines 3 types of relations peculiar to every natural sign. They are as follows:
1) semantic relations that reflect the relations between a sign and its object;
2) syntactic relations that connect a sign with other signs of the system;
3) pragmatic relations that determine the relations between a sign and person who use it in the process of communication.
Pragmatics of translation is a wide notion which covers not only pragmatic meaning of a word, but some problems connected with various levels of understanding by speech acts communicants of certain meanings or messages, depending on linguistic or paralinguistic factors, that is, background knowledge. A well-known linguist Konissarov points out that pragmatic aspect of translation should be considered from three points. One of them is conveying pragmatic meaning of words. This point chiefly pertains to the translation of national realia and equivalent lacking words that is, various names.
4.Types of transformations: lexical, grammatical, stylistic.
Lexical transformations denote rendering of the meanings related to SL lexical items actualised in a given context by means of TL lexical items that are not their dictionary correspondences but after changing their inner shape convey the original sense.
Translational practice reveals that lexical transformations could be of the following types: concretisation, generalisation, shifting, addition and omission. The point is here that transforming takes place at the level of lexical items proper. On the other hand, functional replacement, antonymous translation, logical development of notions, integral transmutation and compensation feature certain grammatical or semantic substitutions. They rather are to be referred to as lexico-grammatical and lexico-semantic transformations.
1. Omission. Summer rains in Florida may be violent, while they last. Летом во Флориде бывают сильные ливни. From the point of view of the Russian language, the clause "while they last" is redundant and would make the Russian sentence sound very unnatural if it were to be translated.
2. Addition. The policeman waved me on. - Полицейский помахал мне рукой, показывая что я могу проезжать. Or: ''Полицейский рукой просигналил (показал), что я могу проезжать. The compact English phrase "to wave on" has no compact equivalent in Russian.
6. Concretization is used when something in the TL is usually expressed using concepts with narrower meaning or when preserving the original concepts with broader meaning would result in an awkward translation: There were pictures on all the walls and there was a vase with flowers on the table. - На всех стенах комнаты висели картины, а на столе стояла ваза с цветами.
7. Generalization is used when something in the TL is usually expressed using concepts with broader meaning or when preserving the original concepts with narrower meaning would result in an awkward translation: She ordered a daiquiri. (= a sweet alcoholic drink made of rum and fruit juice) - Она заказала коктейль.
In most cases grammatical transformations amalgamate with lexical transformations and in many instances are generated by them. grammatical transformation or grammatical replacement is a translational technique in which a SL grammatical item is being rendered by a TL item with different categorical meaning.
3. Transposition. Transposition involves changing the order of words in the target text (TT) as compared to the Source text (ST). Typically, an English sentence has a "subject+predicate+object+adverbial adjunct+place+time" word order:. A typical Russian sentence would generally have a reverse word order: time+place+predicate+subject+object+adverbial adjunct.
4. Change of grammatical forms. For example, in the Russian translation of Prime Minister Tony Blair was hit by a tomato, the original Passive Voice construction is changed to an Active Voice construction:...в британского премьера попал помидор...
11. Sentence integration involves combining two or more sentences into one: Your presence isn't required. Nor is it desirable. - Ваше присутствие не требуется и даже нежелательно.
12. Sentence fragmentation involves splitting one complex or compound sentence into two or more simpler sentences: People everywhere are confronted with the need to make decisions in the face of ignorance and this dilemma is growing. - Люди везде сталкиваются с необходимостью принятия решений при отсутствии достаточной информации. Эта проблема возникает все чаще и чаще.
Attention should be paid to the Stylistic aspect of equivalence because of its importance in achieving the second type of equivalence. The stylistic aspect of equivalence implies the rendering in translation of stylistic and emotive connotations. Stylistic connotations presuppose the use of words belonging to the same layer of the vocabulary (literary, neutral and colloquial). Emotive connotations presuppose the use of words evoking similar connotations. The following example illustrates the rendering of stylistic connotations:
5. Loss-of-meaning compensation involves adding to or reinforcing a TT in one place to compensate for something that hasn't been translated in a different place in the ST: I ain't got no time for that kind of thing! - to compensate for the double negation in You ain't seen nothin' yet! an emphatic syntactic construction can be used in the Russian translation - To ли еще будет!
9. Meaning extension or sense development involves translating a cause by its effect or vice versa: You can't be serious. - Вы, должно быть, шутите. (Cause is translated by its effect: Since you can't be serious, it follows that you must be joking). In the above example, meaning extension is combined with an antonymic translation. Another example: He answered the phone. - Он поднял трубку. You can't speak on the phone unless you have lifted the receiver. The effect "answered" in the ST is translated by its cause "lifted the receiver" (="поднял трубку") in the ТТ.
8. Antonymic translation involves translating a phrase or clause containing a negation using a phrase or clause that does not contain a negation or vice versa: I don't think you're right. - Я думаю, что вы не правы.
10. Metonymic translation. A metonymic translation is similar to meaning extension. Metonymy is a figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is closely associated, as in the use of Moscow for the Russian government. Using a part for the whole, the whole for one of ifs parts, or one of two contiguous concepts for the other are typical metonymic figures of speech. E.g.: School broke up for the summer recess. - Занятия прекратились. Все ушли на летние каникулы. (Или: Начались летние каникулы.)
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