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Semantic Theory and Translation Theory
The tasks of semantic theory:
Sapir-Whorf: Even those who think they have learned a foreign language remain prisoners of their mother tongue’s value system.
Semantic or notional field studies illustrate the limitations on the structural method as applied to the lexicon. If compared with the phonemes, lexemes have unclear definition, lexical field structure knows more deviations, the number of lexical units in a given field may vary greatly from one individual to the next. A lexical unit may belong to different fields in different languages.
Comparisons between fields in two or more languages are based on the same assumption of general validity of each field within its own speech community.
Semantic theory focuses on cognitive meaning.
Geneva school: puts emphasis on the distinction between old and new information in the theme and rheme or them and propos theory. This theory foreshadows the notion of ‘foregrounding’ that was introduced as a refinement of transformational description. Although the constituent elements are the same, different word order, different stresses, or different construction result in a shift of focus, thus signaling different elements to the special attention of the listener/reader. When source language and target language do not have the same devices to create these special effects, the translator may find himself at a loss.
Prieto: depending of context and extralinguistic circumstances the same message may take different forms, be expressed by way of a different signifier. Interpretation depends of the same factors.
Not very encouraging facts for the translator:
The translator has to deal with differences in structure and of means of expression. But in spite of differences in value in the immanent analyses, there may be equivalence in actual signification at the level of utterance. If some semes are lost, they may be added in other parts of the sentence by the way of compensation.
Translator’s role as encoder in the target language after decoding the source language puts him in the position where the precise form of the message is adapted to presumed knowledge and background of the receiver.
For texts where cognitive meaning prevails and formal expression of that meaning has no other function than expressing that meaning, the semantic theories are helpful, and are adequate for describing the double process of encoding and decoding. For literary texts, it is precisely, the literariness that falls outside the domain of semantics.
Whereas semantic description looks for what is generally valid and systematic, literary translation requires the analysis of the idiolect of the source text, not only from a semantic point of view but also with respect to all the intentional and nonintentional induces that are deemed important in that text.
Nineteen
Michael Rifaterre
Transposing Pressuppositions on the Semiotics of Literary Translation.
Literary translation must sound like the original, although in a different system, render both meaning and significance. Also it must reproduce those features of the original text that are the traces left by its production - the signs indicating the genre the text belongs to, the signs making obvious that it is artifact than a plain representation of reality.
A translation presupposes a source text.
No literary translation can ever be successful unless it finds equivalencies for these literariness-inducing presuppositions. (Style, topic, genre).
The translator must transpose (перемещать) presuppositions.
Transposing presuppositions will mean either making the implicit explicit or a lateral displacement whereby the semiotic detour, a figurative turn of phrase.
I am suggesting a limited periphrasis built around the matrix word of which the periphrasis is the transform.
The translator’s periphrasis will retain the lexeme’s literal meaning and will develop the significance.
Translators are faced with the peculiar difficulty of imitating or duplicating text production in the target language: the translation of that part of the original that is derivative, which is to say, generated from the given by a series of variants (these being literally translations of synonym into synonym, must be as derivative as it is in the original
Translator must define precisely what is at work in the original and which semes of the matrix word are activated.
Some may still regard periphrasis as a translator’s cop-out (трусливое бегство), a facile way out of a difficulty. No doubt a more elegant solution would be to maintain in the target language an implication matching the original’s clever pointing to be presupposed. But in most cases it is not possible to find a comparable intertext in the target language, in which the literary canon is bound to be totally different from that in which the original text is immersed.
This being a fundamental structure of the imagination, translation will raise no difficulty.
Textual overdetermination enabling readers to interpret (that is, to translate into simpler or more accepted phraseology) obscure and unusual images within their own language, and to find legitimacy (соответствие законам) in bizaree metaphors, is the translator’s surest guide.
Pressupossing requires a syntagm Translator’s solutions should be to actualize the relevant parts of a descriptive system (syntagms of synonyms).
The simplest way to state the difference between literary and non-literary translation is to say that the latter translates what is in the text, whereas the former must translate what the text only implies.
Twenty
Jacques Derrida
From Des tours de Babel.
The ‘tower of Babel’ does not merely figure the irreducible (непреодолимый) multiplicity of tongues, it exhibits an incompletion, the impossibility of finishing, of totalizing, of completing something of the order of edification (поучение).
Babel means: it is not only a proper name, the reference of a pure signifier to a single being – and for this reason untranslatable – but a common noun related to the generality of a meaning.
Let us note one of the limits of theories of translation: al too often they treat the passing from one language to another and do not sufficiently consider the possibility for language to be implicated more than two in a text. How is a text written in several languages at a time to be translated? How is the effect of plurality to be ‘rendered’? And what of translating with several languages at a time, will that be called translating?
Babel tower story recounts, among other things, the origin of the confusion of tongues, the irreducible multiplicity of idioms, the necessary and impossible task of translation, its necessity as impossibility. NB: It is in translation that we most often read this narrative. Proper name “Babel” remains forever untranslatable, it means, that this word does not strictly belong, for the same reason as the other words, to the language, to the system of the language, be it translated or translating.
Someone who speaks the language of Genesis (Книга Бытия) could be attentive to the effect of the proper name in effacing the conceptual equivalent (like pierre (rock) – in Pierre (Peter), Babel/confusion).
At the very moment when pronouncing ‘Babel’ we sense the impossibility of deciding whether this name belongs, properly and simply, to one tongue. And it matters that this undecidability is at work in a struggle for the proper name within a scene of genealogical indetedness. In seeing to “make a name for themselves”, to found at the same time a universal tongue and a unique genealogy.
When God imposes and opposes his name, he ruptures the rational transparency but interrupts also the colonial violence of the linguistic imperialism. He destines them to translation, he subjects them to the law of translation both necessary and impossible. Translation becomes law, duty, and debt, but the debt one can no longer discharge.
Every translation is in a position to speak about translation
The structure of the original is marked by the requirement to be translated.
Twenty one
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