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Galperin: FS- a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. FSs are products of concrete social tasks set out by the lng community.
Arnold: specifity of each style is predetermined by the specifity of functions carried out by lng in a particular sphere of communication.
Karasik: a variety of discourse singled out on the basis of the communicative distance, degree of self-expression, lng clichés.
The term comes right from the consideration of such notions as function (the purpose or aim of communication), sphere of communication and norm in their relation to speech varieties and their classification.
Today functional stylistics faces a number of problems that have no definite and final solutions. Here belong 1)the discrimination btw the approaches to the study of speech varieties by functional stylistics and discourse analysis; 2)the basic criteria for the separation of FSs; 3)the systematization (classification) of FSs, 4)the possibility of isolation as FS the colloquial variety and imaginative literature.
One should not confuse the notion of FS with the notion of individual style (IS).IS presupposes a deliberate, though often intuitional choice of lng means. It is normally applied to a writer's individual manner of using lng means to achieve the effect he desires. (Shakespeare's style, Faulkner's style)
But IS is not the speech of an individual that is called idiolect. It is habitual idiosyncrasy in the use of lng that is typical of any individual.
12. The style of news media (Broadcast journalism) The world of the news media embraces the spheres of written, or 1)print (newspapers and magazines), and 2)spoken, or broadcasting (radio and television), journalism. It performs multifarious functions: 1.to inform a wide audience about the events in the news, 2.to suggest and often impose their possible interpretation or 3)just to share an opinion about them with a contemporary. Each paper or channel has worked out its house style – a journalistic style characterized by the preferred forms of expression. Their selection mainly depends on the following 3 factors: 1)the awareness of what its readership/listener/viewer wants; 2)the treated area (politics, economy, science) that predetermines the application of the correspondent vocab units including neologisms, abbrev, international wds; 3) the time and space allotted (распредел) for a particular variety Modern radio & TV broadcast news & they educate and entertain the listener /the viewer. Only about 5% of broadcast production is devoted to current news and its discussion. Current news is reported in the news bulletin or newscast. It traditionally consists of a series of news items and falls into several blocks (general, politics, business, sport, weather). TV & radio news programmes start up and end with the headline which is a news round-up containing the main news issues read out before the full broadcast and summarized at the end. In television each of the items is presented in the form of a documentary. News broadcasting is characterized by: 1)impartiality of expression 2) neutral and clichéd language. The viewers /listeners are effected not only by the emotive (e.g. genuine metaphors and similes) and argumentative (e.g. opinions of experts, eyewitnesses’ evidence, generalization, parenthesis, parallels, connectives) verbal means. The influence is reinforced by diff non-verbal modes: 1)the observer’s voice & personality; 2)a spec selection of background sound techniques (energetic or sorrowful music) 3)In TV intensification by the video image (pitiful pictures). TV and radio commentaries are spoken accompaniments to a broadcast. They may accompany various public events (funerals, inaugurations, processions). But the most frequent kinds of commentary are those associated with sports & games. According to D. Crystal, they can be of two types: 1)the ‘play-by-play’; 2) the ‘colour-adding’ commentaries (display pre-event background, post-event evaluation, and within-event interpretation). Features of the ‘play-by-play’ commentary: 1)a highly formulaic manner of expression (helps fluency and gives the commentator time to think) 2)At times the speed of delivery gets slower or faster, reflecting the atmosphere in the field. 3)Thediscourse structure is cyclical, as commentators by summary regularly inform the listeners or viewers who have just switched on or simply lost track of what is happening. 4)use of the present tense, ellipsis, and the inverted word order. 5)the frequent use of the passive voice. It allows the commentator to delay mentioning the player’s name. 13.Text stylistics. Types of information.Basic textual segments. Text categories. T st-csaims at investigating the most effective ways & means of producing Ts belonging to diff styles, substyles, genres. T, as a completed product of speech, represents a sequence of wds, grammatically connected & semantically coherent, & having a certain communicative goal. St-c analysis of a concrete T should lead to a clear & profound understanding of its content. St-cally significant seem to be the problems related to the types of info imparted by diff Ts, the problem of T categories & the problem of textual segments. According to Galperin, there are 3 types of content inf: factual, conceptual, subtextual. 1)Factual inf is associated with data about people, things, events. It is always explicit. It is supposed to be logical & objective by character. 2)Conceptual inf reflects the author’s individual understanding of the relationship among the people, things, events described (for e.g. their cause-effect links). This sort of logical inf is inferred (подразумеваемый) => various interpretations are possible. It is derived from the T by the reader himself => subjective. 3)Subtextual inf – kind of implicit inf stylistic by its nature. This additional inf can appear in the T as a result of interaction & simultaneous realization of diff types of lex & structural mngs. Aesthetic inf (t belonging to the belles-letters style) is created on the basis of all 3 types of content inf. Objective aes inf- part of general semantic inf of a particular T. Subjective aes inf- is embodied in connotative & emotive stylistic means of the T which contribute to its implicit content. T categories: 1) Content cat-s (characterize the T in terms of its semantics & pragmatics):informality, modality, expressi-veness, emotiveness, accentuation, intertextuality. 2) Structural catdo not deal with the ontological aspect of the T & are represented by cohesion, integrity, completeness. Informality-T cat embracing multi-channel logical & st-c inf which aims at developing the author’s ideas about the things & processes reflected in the T. Modality- manifestation of the author’s attitude to the phenomena described. Expressiveness can be traced on diff lng levels & is realized through imaginary, transposition, breaking normative valency of wd, inclusion of dialectical wds& borrowings. Emotivness is realized through st-c means that reveal the emotions of an author, evokes response of the reader. Accentuation aims at giving semantic prominence to a certain piece of factual inf or laving special emphasis on the most imp elements of conceptual inf.(explicit connectives, parenthetic wds, intensifiers, st-c repetition, parallelism).Intertextuality is closely connected with the notion of subtext & understanding the T itself as the dialogue going on btw the author & the reader during the process of their communication. subtext can be created by allusions, citations. Cohesion is associated with logically consistent development of the main theme (realized by connectors(&, but), transitions(& then, again), pronouns(this, that), lexical& synonymic repetitions, developed antithesis, sustained metaphor, parallel constructions). Completeness of the T can be understood as the result of the integrity of its constituent units. 14.The style of religion. The aim of religious style is to express religious beliefs on public occasions in the context of public worship.The religious style falls into at least three substyles:-the biblical substyle;-the liturgical substyle;-the theological discourse substyle The forms of realization of the religious style include-the texts of the scriptures (The Old Testament, The New Testament);-common biblical prayers;-religious hymns;-sermons (which have more in common with other oratory pieces-theological discourse texts; Emotional appeal typical of this style reveals itself on all language levels. On the level of phonetics:-Alliteration: foul friend, sacraments and sacrifice, etc. Specific manner of presentation of religious monologue:-Emotional coloring of the voice (varies from kindness, sympathy, love, friendliness to persuasion, concern, etc.)-Pitch (ranges from very loud and high to very soft and low; -Slow rate of utterance (long pauses, all meaningful words are stressed);-Rhythmical organization (effect of monotony), the aim of which is to achieve certain calmness, quietness, peacefulness. Graphic peculiarities:-Capitilization: God Himself -Italics-Numbered paragraphs On the level of words:-Archaic words: thee, thou, thy, thine,beholdest, considerest-Lofty words: amen, garments, serpent;-Borrowings from Latin: non serviam (I will not serve);-religious terms: Lord, father, which is in heaven, etc. -Tropes (metaphors, similes, epithets, periphrasis, etc.):The seats in heaven left vacant, filled with love for men, etc. a radiant and mighty angel, The Great Judge (God), the weaker vessel (woman).-Lexical oppositions: ask – receive, seek – find, knock – open, fish – snake, bad - good On the level of syntax:Different types of expressive constructions, which may perform different functions:Questions: - provide grounds for further speculation on the matter: If God sent you to do something significant for Him, how would you expect to be treated?-contain advice: How about taking a new approach to giving thanks today. (You should take…)Imperative constructions may express: -advice Place your trust in Christ, who died on the cross for our sins.-instruction-call for action-request May it never be our lot to hear that language!-evaluation Think of 56000 hours of worthless activity Exclamatory statements: How right he was! This was likely carried out only in extreme circumstances, but imagine the emotional struggle they must have endured in fulfilling God’s holy law! Coordinative conjunctions (but, and, or) when used at the beginning of a sentence: Jesus did all the work of providing salvation. Butwe still have to wor Inversion: In sharp contrast to these misconceptions is the truth that comes from God. Elliptical sentences: Waiting for a miracle? – God’s done plenty of them already. Inversion: He was born of a virgin pure…Mart, the virgin mother… Questions-in-the-narrative: Did they listen? Yes, they listened, but would not hear. Repetitions and parallel constructions: …and yet he fell, he fell and there fell with him the third part of the host heaven… In modern versions most archaic words and forms are replaced by their up-to-date equivalents: beholdest – look, considerest not – pay no attention, etc. But the modern texts preserve most of the lexical and syntactical stylistic devices. 6. Syntactical stylistic devices, based on peculiar linkage Devices belonging to this group are: asyndeton, polysyndeton, and the gap-sentence link. Asyndeton It is a deliberate avoidance of conjunctions in the constructions in which they would normally be used. (e.g. There was no rest for her (the ship) and no rest for us. She tossed, pitched, stood on her head, sat on her tail, rolled, groaned.) As is seen from the example, the absence of the conjunction and indicates tense, energetic activities. The omission of conjunctions therefore, because, between the clauses as in the utterance: You are my wife; you are dearer to me than anyone in the world, may connote various implications. Polysyndeton It is an intentional repetition of conjunctions, connectives or prepositions in close succession for various stylistic purposes: to emphasise siimiltaneousness of actions described, to disclose the author's subjective attitude towards the characters and events, to create rhythmical effect as in the following examples. All the inhabitants of Hampton and Thoulsey, dress themselves up m boating costumes, and come and march round the lock with their dogs, and flirt, and smoke, and watch the boats. He loved to play, with people, with words, with paints, with ideas, with anything he could get his mind or hands on. The Gap-Sentence Link it is a peculiar way of connection which is mainly found in dialogues and represented speech. Its essence lies in the formal separation of the two parts of the utterance by a full stop. Thus the second seemingly independent part is brought into focus of the reader's attention, (e.g. / think if we wanted to do an adoption, this is an ideal opportunity, but nothing says we have to do it now. Or later.) Unlike logical segmentation of an utterance the gap-sentence-link represents the author's subjective interpretation of the links between parts of an utterance thus endowing it with additional connotations and associations. The two parts are usually formally connected by and or but 8. Syntactical stylistic devices, based on PECULIAR USE OF COLLOQUIAL CONSTRUCTIONS Among the devices based on certain principles of colloquial speech production are the following: ellipsis, aposiopesis, question-in-the-narrative, and represented speech. Ellipsisis the omission of a word or words necessary for the complete syntactical construction of a sentence, but not necessary for understanding it. In colloquial speech such constructions are frequent and arise from speed of delivery and economy of effort. The omitted element can usually be recovered by considering the context of what has been said (e.g. You feel all right? Anything wrong, or what). Being a typical colloquial speech phenomenon ellipsis is also used in author's narration where it bears definite stylistic functions (e.g. And there was a sparkle of yellow jasmine by the door; the closed door. But no sound; no smoke from the chimney; no dog barking). Aposiopesisis a sudden and dramatic breaking off of a thought m the middle of a sentence as though the speaker were unwilling or unable to continue. Both elliptical points (...) and a dash may mark it in print (e.g. "Oh, I want to help you, Andrew, only do you really believe" Baumer took a deep breath. Then, low voiced, he replied, "I knew a..."). As is seen from the examples a sudden break in the narrative may convey doubt, indecision sometimes - anger, threat, thus carrying ад emotive function. When used in the author's speech or personages' inner dialogues aposiopesis promotes the creation of emotional tension. e.g. And yet - his whole alibi depends on her word. But in that case -. Question-in-the-Narrativeis a question asked solely to produce an emotional effect. The answer is either self evident or immediately provided by the questioner (e.g. But if you can't help yourself, who can? I suppose nobody). Such questions help maintain closer contact with the reader or with the listener. They are much favoured by orators for an obvious advantage of taking over the initiative and, by mere verbal trickery, of making people believe that the thoughts imposed on them are their own thoughts. Represented Speech.English writers use three ways of reproducing actual speech: 1) direct speech-representing actual speech as it is; 2) indirect speech-representing actual speech through the author's speech; 3) represented speech, also related by the author, combining lexical and syntactical peculiarities of colloquial and literary speech. Represented speech reproduces the spoken words or thoughts of a character almost directly, but still within the author's speech (e.g. It was funny to think that in a few hours she would be someone else, someone's wife...what did that mean'*' Who would she be then'?) Represented speech in the passage conveys the thoughts of a person that were never actually pronounced. The use of represented speech is powerful device in the hands of writers; it presents the words and even the inner speech (thoughts) of personages more vividly and emotionally than indirect speech. Represented speech may be marked by certain grammatical features: 1) the tense-forms of the verbs are switched from t present to the past; 2) personal pronouns are changed from the 1st and 2nd person to the 3rd person; 3) but the syntactical structure of the utterance doesn't change. Uttered Represented Speech. There are two major types of represented speech: uttered represented speech and unuttered represented speech or inner monologue (e.g. Then Barley himself was distracted while he tried in his passable French to explain to a tall Palestinian that no, he was afraid he was NOT a member of the Peace Group, old boy, and alas NOT me manager of the hotel either). In this example the URS proper begins with the word no. Like author's narration it lacks inverted commas and is marked by preservation of the third person instead of the first person and the Past Tense instead of the Present. The peculiarities of the character's speech are as follows: colloquial address old boy, the use of the word no, which is indicative of the dialogue in progress, the repetition of the particle NOT and the interjection alas to show the emotional state of the speaker. Unuttered Represented Speechor inner monologuereflects the feelings and thoughts of a character. It resembles indirect speech in shifting tenses (from present to past) and the pronouns (from the first person to the third person) but it also retains some features of direct speech, such as: direct questions, elliptical constructions, breaks, exclamatory words, colloquialisms, etc. (e.g. Unhappily, Andrew began to compound an antipyretic mixture. Spirits of nitre, salicylate of sodium - where the dickens was the soda sal? Oh! there it was!). 7. Syntactical stylistic devices, based on STYLISTIC USE OF STRUCTURAL MEANING Both rhetorical question and litotes are devices, based on the effect of transposition. What is transposition? Broadly speaking, transposition is placing a language sign in the surrounding which is unusual for its functioning. Rhetorical Questionis a good example of the effect of transposition: orators sometimes use a sentence that has the form of a question instead of an exclamation. Rhetorical question is one that expects no answer. It is asked in order to make a statement rather than to elicit a reply (e.g.. If both ways led to terror and death, what good lay in choke?). Simultaneous realisation of two meanings that of a question and of an assertion endows the utterance with an emotional charge. The effect is the strongest with negative-interrogative sentences which are capable of implying various shades of emotive meaning and modality (e.g. Are you not much belter than they?). Rhetorical questions are most frequently used in dramatic narration and in publicistic style. Litotesis a device whereby an affirmation is expressed by denying its contrary. Usually litotes presupposes double negation - one through a negative particle (no, not), the other - through a word with negative meaning (e.g. Not hopeless. Not without love. Not a coward. Not too awful). The stylistic function of litotes is to convey doubts of the speaker concerning the exact characteristics of the object, or a feeling, as in the following example: / fell 1 wouldn't say 'no' to a cup of tea. 16. The stylistic device of simile. Simile is an explicitstatement of partial identity (affinity, likeness, similarity) of two objects belonging to entirely different classes of things. E.g. She felt like a shivering and bruised ant. (Priestley) The word explicit distinguishes simile from metaphor where comparison is not stated clearly: a) Metaphor is a renaming where a word, a phrase, a sentence, etc. is used instead of another; simile always employs two names of two separate objects. b) Simile always contains at least one more component part – a word or a word-group signalizing the idea of juxtaposition and comparison. The formal signals of simile are mostly: 1) link words as, like – establishing the analogy categorically. E.g. Her arms were like legs of mutton, her breasts like giant cabbages; her face, broad and fleshy, gave you an impression of almost indecent nakedness, and vast chin succeeded to vast chin. (Maugham) 2) link words as though, as if, than– establishing but a slight similarity. E.g. Itwas as though he had become aware of the soul of the universe and were compelled to express it. (Maugham) 3) lexical and morphological means that establish resemblance, such as to resemble, to remind of, in a way or verbal phrases to bear a resemblance to, to have a look of; suffixes - ish, - like, - some, -y, etc. E.g. He reminded you of those jolly, fat merchants that Rubens painted. (Maugham) ‘I believe you’re right, Sandycroft …’ said Mr.Smeeth, with the air of a dutiful cross-talk comedian. (Priestley) … the place where Strickland lived had the beauty of the Garden of Eden. (Maugham) He had …a small, still babyishmouth (Priestley). The function of simile is specifying and illustrating. There exist a lot of trite (hackneyed, familiar) similes in the English language. E.g. as clear as a day, as black as a crow, to behave like a lamb. Like metaphors similes can be sustained or extended. E.g. Her tranquillity was like the sullen calm that broods over an island which has been swept by a hurricane. (Maugham) Simile must be distinguished from logicalcomparison or comparison proper, which brings together two things belonging to one class, i.e. deals with what is logically comparable, while in simile there is usu. a bit of fantasy. E.g. He is as clever as his father (the same class of objects – human beings). 15. Metonymy. Metonymy is a trope based upon contiguityблизость – upon a real connection (inward or outward) – between the object of nomination and the object whose name by way of associations is used to replace it. (Cf. with metaphor where this connection is non-existent.) Metonymy can also be defined as a nomination of the object through one of its inherent properties. E.g. ‘Hulloa, fatty. What do you want?’ (Maugham) Function. Metonymy usually creates an ironic or even sarcastic effect, sometimes it serves intensification. According to the relation between the tenor and the vehicle the following types of metonymy are differentiated: 1 .the abstract stands for the concrete: E.g. But then he did not really want any of these people, did not want company for company’s sake. What he really wanted was Love, Romance,a Wonderful Girl of His Own. And these had lately all been assuming the same shape in his mind, that of Lena Golspie. (Priestley) 2. the container is mentioned instead of the contents: E.g. He sipped one more bottle (of whisky). 3. the material instead of the thing made of it: E.g. She was glancing through his water colours. 4. the maker stands for the thing made: E.g. The Rembrandt turned out to be fake. He adores Mozart. 5. the instrument is put for the agent: E.g. His brush can be easily recognized. 6. a part is put for the whole (synecdoche): E.g.There were long legs all around. Metonymy in many cases is trite. E.g. to cite Byron, hands wanted. Synecdoche can as well be expressed grammatically. An example of traditional (stereotyped) synecdoche is the use of the singular (the so-called generis singularis) when the plural (the whole class) is meant. E.g. ‘A woman can forgive a man for the harm he does her’ he said, ‘but she can never forgive him for the sacrifices he makes on her account.’ (or: The woman...).(Maugham) The opposite type of synecdoche (‘the whole for a part’) occurs -when the name of the genus is used in place of the name of the species: E.g. Stop torturing the poor animal (instead of the poor dog); or -when the 'plural of disapprobation' is resorted to: E.g. Readingbooks when I am talking to you!(while one book is meant). 17. Tropes: Epithet. The epithet (Gk. epitheton ‘addition’) is an attributive (or adverbial) word or phrase used to characterise an object, i.e. to express an individual perception and evaluation of its features and properties. E.g. a giant moustache, a pessimistic rumble. (Priestley) I.V. Arnold believes that it is a lexico-syntactical trope for it is usu. materialized in a sentence as an attribute, an adverbial modifier or a predicative. The epithet can be expressed by an adjective, an adverb, a noun, a participle, etc. E.g. ‘What have I done now?’ she began indignantly (an adv., an adv. mod.). (Priestley) The epithet differs from the logical (= descriptive) attribute, which shows the inherent property of a thing, thus being objective and non-evaluating. E.g. a middle-aged man, bluey-green walls. (Priestley) Compositionally epithets fall into: 1) simple or word-epithets, e.g. Happiness for him had a feminine shape. (Priestley) 2) compoundepithets(formed by compound adjectives), e.g.a crescent-shaped object; wild-looking young fellows (Priestley). 3) two-step epithets(supplied with intensifiers), e.g. … fatallysecond class … public school … (Priestley) 4) phraseepithets(also called hyphenated epithets when written through a hyphen), e.g. Now he was practically a four-hundred-a-year man instead of a three-hundred-a-year man. (Priestley)… 5) reversed epithets (composed of two nouns linked by an of-phrase where theattributive relation between the members of the combination shows that the SD is an epithet),e.g. a thick figure of a man (Priestley) According to I.R. Galperin, semantically epithets may be divided into 2 groups: a) associated underlining the essential feature of the object, e.g.tremendous moustache. (Priestley) b) unassociated with the noun, unexpected and striking, e.g. the inhuman drawing-room. (Priestley) V.A. Kukharenko splits epithets into: 1. fixed(trite, traditional, conventional, standing), e.g. a devoted friend, magic weather. 2. figurative (transferred)that can be metaphorical, metonymic, ironical, etc., e.g.bushy eyebrows. (Priestley) From the point of view of the distribution of epithets in the sentence, there can be distinguished a string of epithetswhose function is to give a multisided characterization. E.g.That she was not really a creature of that world only made her more fascinating, mysterious, romantic … (Priestley) 3.The problem of classification of functional styles. The object of linguostylistics as the study of the nature, functions and structure of Stylistic Devices and Expressive Means and the study of the functional styles of language. Functional style (FS) may be defined as a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim of communication. FSs appear mainly in the literary standard of a language as the product of its development. FSs are sometimes called registers or discourses. In the English literary standard we distinguish: 1)the language of belles-lettres; 2)the language of publicistic literature; 3) the language of press/media;4)the language of scientific prose; 5)the language of official documents. Each FS may be characterized by a number of distinctive features though at the same time each FS is perceived as a single whole. FSs are subdivided into a number of substyles/varieties of language each of which has a peculiar set of features of its own. As far as varieties are concerned they are differentiated according to the actual situation of communication. Basically it is common to differentiate between the spoken and the written variety of English language. Spoken variety of language is used in the presence of an interlocutor, usually it is maintained in the form of a dialogue. The written variety presupposes the absence of an interlocutor and exists in the form of a monologue. Spoken variety is remarkable for the extensive use of the potential hidden in the human voice. Written language has to seek means to compensate this disadvantage. That is why it is more diffuse, explanatory, characterized by careful organization and deliberate choice of words and constructions. Nevertheless, it should be borne in mind that in the belles-letters style there might appear elements of colloquial language though it will always be stylized by a writer. The spoken language is by its very nature spontaneous, momentary and fleeting. It cannot be detached from the users of the language. The written language, on the contrary, can be detached from the writer and thus be preserved in time.
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