Regular syntactic and occasional tranformations

2. What is partitioning and integration? Define them and give exam­ples. Describe transposition as a variety of inner partitioning

Partitioning is either replacing in translation of a source sentence by two or more target ones or converting a simple source sentence into a compound or complex target one.

Integration is the opposite of partitioning, it implies combining two or (seldom) more source sentences into one target sentence.

Transposition is a peculiar variety of inner partitioning in trans­lation meaning a change in the order of the target sentence syntactic elements (Subject, Predicate, Object, etc.) as compared with that of the source sentence dictated either by peculiarities of the target lan­guage syntax or by the communication intent

3. What is replacement? Define it. What are the basic types of replace­ments in practical translation? Give examples.

Replacement is any change in the target text at the morphologi­cal, lexical and syntactic levels of the language when the elements of certain source paradigms are replaced by different elements of target paradigms³⁶

The following basic types of replacements are observed in English-Ukrainian translation:

1. Replacement of Noun Number and Verb Tense and Voice Para­digms, e. g. replacing Singular Form by Plural and vice versa; re­placement of Active Voice by Passive; replacement of Future by Pre­sent, Past by Present, etc.

2. Replacement of Parts of Speech (the most common is replacing Ukrainian Nouns by English Verbs when translating into English /see in more detail below/; common enough is the replacement of English 'Nomina agentis' /drinker, sleeper, etc./ by Ukrainian Verbs).

3. Replacement in translation of a negative statement by an affirmative

one is an efficient device called antonymous translation. It is a means of text compression extensively used in interpretation and discussed in more detail elsewhere in this Manual (viz. Lecture 15 Interpreta­tion: Professional Skills and Training)

4. What is addition? Give definition and examples.

Addition in translation is a device intended for the compensa­tion of structural elements implicitly present in the source text or paradigm forms missing in the target language

5. What is omission? Give examples of Ukrainian-English translation

Omission is reduction of the elements of the source text consid­ered redundant from the viewpoint of the target language structural patterns and stylistics

Lecture 11.

1. What are the basic factors that influence the choice of translation equivalents?

the choice of translation equivalents depends on the context, situation and background information.

2. What is immediate context? How does it influence the choice of translation equivalents?

Immediate context is a sequence of syntactically and semantically related words that determines the meaning and syntactic function of a given word and forms the basis for its translation.

immediate context is seldom sufficient for the proper choice of equivalents. Usually immediate context is lim­ited to a sentence, though in many cases a length of text shorter than a sentence is sufficient as an immediate context.

3. What is general context? How does it influence the choice of transla­tion equivalents?

General context is the source text as a whole. one will need broader context and, probably, some additional background information as well

4. What are the factors that influence the choice of translation equiva­lents of individual words and word combinations?

The choice of translation equivalents for individual words and word combinations depends on the translator's awareness in the un­derlying cultural background.

The choice of translation equivalents depends both on immedi­ate and general context.

5. What is the role of cultural background in finding proper translation equivalents?

To select proper equivalents one needs to be aware of the cultural background underlying the source text being translated.

Lecture 12.

1. What varieties are distinguished in translation?

translation is di­vided into written translation (or simply translation) and oral (or inter­pretation).

Interpretation, in its turn, is traditionally divided into consecutive in­terpretation and simultaneous interpretation

Written translation is also divided into several sub-categories de­pending on the genre of the text being translated, such as literary transla­tion (fiction, poetry and publicistic texts), translation of official docu­ments, etc.

2. Are translation approaches and devices similar in different transla­tion varieties?

all translation varieties use similar approaches and translation devices. Both in written translation and dur­ing the interpretation the translator (interpreter) may use either trans­formational or denotative approach.⁴⁰

3. What are the principle differences between consecutive and simulta­neous interpretation?

In consecutive interpretation the interpretation follows the source utterance, whereas simultaneous interpretation is performed simultaneously with the original speech.

This time lag of the interpreter relative to the speaker is the main distinction of consecutive interpretation, which determines the peculiari­ties of the approach and translation devices used by the interpreter

4. What are chuchotage and at-sight interpretation?

Chuchotage and at-sight in­terpretation are commonly regarded as alternatives of consecutive inter­pretation despite minor differences in physical procedures.

Chuchotage and at-sight interpretation are two specific alternatives of consecutive interpretation proper. During chuchotage the interpreter speaks in low voice, almost whispers so that only the interpretation user can hear. This interpretation alternative is rather hard for the interpreter who has to control the pitch of his or her voice. As concerns the ap­proach it is similar to that used in standard consecutive interpretation.

At-sight interpretation is another variety of consecutive interpreta­tion. The difference is that the interpreter reads a written text in a source language rather than listening to the speaker as in ordinary consecutive interpretation. However, there is a peculiarity of this interpretation vari­ety which, unfortunately, is often overlooked.

5. Describe differences in working environments of a translator and interpreter?

A translator has at hand dictionaries and reference materials and, as a rule, observes no spe­cific time limits for the work; translation may be self-edited and redone if so required.

An interpreter is entirely self-dependent and cannot rely on any out­side help: mistakes, slips of tongue are immediately noticeable and derate the translation. In other words, the interpretation and translation tasks are equally hard, but different as different are the required skills and training methods discussed below in the lectures that follow.

Lecture 13.

1. What are the distinctive features of literary translation?

In literary translation the translator is to render the images of the source text rather than only facts like in other translation and inter­pretation varieties

2. What is hypertext? Define it. Give examples of hypertext allusions and associations.

Hypertext is the collective meaning of a literary text comprising all associations and allusions acquired by the words and word com­binations of this text in their previous usage

These associations and allusions may be acquired when words and word combinations were used in other texts: books, popular songs, say­ings, films, etc

3. Can a translator render the whole of the source hypertext? If not, then what part of the hypertext is lost?

It is hardly possible and desirable to give a universal prescription for hypertext substitutions in translation - the grounds of the choice are unique in each case.

Moreover, because of the unique cultural background of each nation a large share of the source hypertext is lost in translation.⁴³

4. What is the attitude of the target language audience to a piece of lit­erary translation?

Literary translation should be recognized by the target language speakers as a literary text in their native language

5. What is to be taken into account in translation of dialogues?

In literary translation of dialogues the translator should take exact account of the speakers' character and situation of the dialogue. This in­formation determines the style of translation.

Lecture 14.

1. What are the peculiarities of the English language system which are to be taken into account in Ukrainian-English translation?

Of numerous peculiarities of the system of English the following three are, perhaps, the most important for translation into this language.

1. Definite (pre-determined) order of words in a sentence.

2. Predominantly verbal style of expression.

3. Analytical way of expressing semantic and syntactic relations between words (by positioning rather than by prepositions and case forms).

2. What are the most important changes of the source text in Ukrain­ian-English translation?

When translating from Ukrainian into English the translator is:

♦ to change the word order in the source sentences in accord with the English syntax;

♦ to change the source text style into predominantly verbal and

♦ to express the syntactic and semantic relations between nouns by their proper positioning.

3. What is the optimal approach in Ukrainian-English translation?

in order to convey the source text content in an optimal way one should translate it using the phrasing common to and easily understood by the target audience. The best way to do this provides a combination of denotative approach (interpretation of the content) and transforma­tional scheme (transforming Ukrainian phrases into standard English expressions).