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By conducting the Hawthorne studies, various assumptions were discovered. A person's work behavior is not easily determined as a cause and effect relationship; however it is determined by a complex set of attributes. Informal groups that were present in the organization form a social structure which was preserved through job related symbols of prestige and power. Change in the organization can be avoided by being more aware of the employees' sentiments and their participation. The findings of the experiments led to the discovery that the workplace is a close knit social system and not just a production system. Hawthorne studies also established the evolution in methodology. Actual test results and findings were implemented in the study rather than depending on sources from the library books or laboratory tests. In conclusion, the experiments resulted in the advantages in generating theories and conducting tests to reiterate the research done. Human relations stressed that more attention must be paid to the workers well-being and welfare to create a motivational environment in the workplace. The Hawthorne studies were the building blocks to numerous studies conducted that improved the development in management theory. Also, in practice, some levels of the hierarchy of needs do not exist for some individuals and some incentives that were present could fit in more than one hierarchy i.e. money in most cases not only buys food and shelter bought can also be seen as a symbol of status to some people. The threat of redundancy of an individual in an organization can also affect an individual's higher level of motivation as the need to satisfy the lower level achievements take higher precedence. An individual's satisfaction of his or her hierarchy of needs is difficult to decide as different people think differently and thus it is not a general statement. The Hawthorne studies were also criticized by various theorists. They were condemned for not having enough controls in the experiments. Changes to the reward agreement and the variation of the number of test subjects during the study affected the validity of the findings. However, people who conducted the experiments have never mentioned that the tests that they have done were replicable. They have never avoided the fact that the changes in the reward system as well the workload were not implemented.
29 Is it possible to replicate Hawthorne experiment in nowadays (you can try and remember the case from the text “Replication as a research tool
We also can use this experiment nowadays. It is correct that employees work harder and do their job with fewer mistakes, when they have got the feeling of responsibility and more attention to themselves. Because, everyone wants to be acknowledged and recognized, as a professional and as a person. And also, they believe that it will influence to their salary too. In my point of view it helps to increase productivity of workers. The Hawthorne effect is used in factory areas like assembly plant. It is also used in design or creative industries for example a draftsmen uses this experiment. The education and services segment utilizes this effect, for example a nurse in the service region uses this experiment.
The benefits of Hawthorne effect are to allow clear recognition of the apprehensions of the workers. It explains efficiency issues in a sustainable and long term basis, if it is appropriately and precisely modeled. It brings forward steadiness in the evaluation of the working situation when the organization wants to carry out long term envisioning.
The disadvantages of Hawthorne effect are it is difficult to classify the dangerous working environment attributes as some are built-in like organization dynamics etc. quantification of the limitations, and the efficiency model is also very biased and depends on the discrimination of the manager. Critical working features are energetic and model needs to be restructured continuously to replicate actual 'ground' situation.
30 How to avoid the Hawthorne Effect?
Step 1 – Timeline. You’re measuring how changes to process impact productivity, so the obvious step is to extend the timeline of the project to request that changes are maintained over a longer period of time.
Step 2 – Human nature. It is reasonably well known that our attitude is changeable and counterfeit when we are being observed. Some employees might want to do their best, when others will slacken off to create a low benchmark level.
Step 3 – Communication. The process will be much more realistic if you communicate clearly from the beginning why you are doing this. If employees think you are trying to be more efficient in order to lay off staff then it seems unlikely you’ll get a true reflection of how people work. The same is true if people think you will just be asking them to work harder for no extra money. If you can communicate how this will benefit them however it will show through in your results.
These three steps should help you to overcome the Hawthorne Effect and ensure that your process improvement efforts are both accurate and effective.
31. How do sociologists use scientific method?
How do sociologists study human behavior and institutions Like the typical citizen on the street, the sociologist is interested in the central questions of our time. Is the family falling apart Why is there so much crime and such like. Such issues concern most people, whether or not they have academic training. However, unlike the typical citizen, the sociologist must use scientific method in studying society. Scientific method is a systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem.
A key element in scientific method is planning. When sociologists wish to learn more about human behavior, they do not simply walk out the door, or pick up the telephone, and begin asking questions. There are five basic steps in scientific method that researchers follow in developing useful research. These are:
1 defining the problem,
2 reviewing the literature,
3 formulating the hypothesis,
4 selecting the research design and then collecting and analyzing data,
5 developing the conclusion.
An actual example will illustrate the workings of scientific method. In the 1980s, people in the United States became increasingly aware of the plight of the homeless in the nations urban centers. In the past the homeless were primarily older white males living as alcoholics in skid row areas. However, todays homeless persons tend to be younger and include growing numbers of families without any shelter.
Defining the problem. The first step in any sociological research project is to state as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate. In beginning their work on homele
ess, a team of sociologists headed by David Snow considered the question of who the homeless are. The researchers learned that the mass media presented the homeless primarily as mentally ill. The sociologists developed a researchable question: How representative is the media image of the homeless After that they developed an operational definition, i.e. an explanation of the abstract concept mental illness. They classified homeless persons as mentally ill if they had contact with one or more mental health agencies and were simultaneously diagnosed by the agency personnel as having one or more mental health problems.
Reviewing the literature. By conducting a review of the literature, researchers refine the problem under study, clarify possible techniques to be used in collecting data and may avoid making unnecessary mistakes. When David Snow and his colleagues began considering mental illness among the homeless, they turned to two types of literature. First, they reviewed popular magazines such as Time, Newsweek and People and found a consistent image of the homeless as street people who had previously spent some time in mental hospitals. Second, they examined the systematic studies done in Boston and New York which
32. How can researchers develop a sample of homeless persons in order to study the issue of homelessness?
Homelessness continues to be a vexing social problem that concerns many
community psychologists and other professionals, as well as the general
public. Responding to the obvious need, research has progressed rapidly over
the past decade. The eight papers in this Special Issue provide examples of
the many methodological and conceptual advances that have been made in
the recent research on homelessness. The papers provide policy analysis,
develop measures and methods for collecting representative samples, compare
important subgroups in the homeless population, conduct longitudinal
investigations, and describe and evaluate innovative interventions. © 1999
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
The lifetime prevalence of homelessness in the United States has been estimated at over
seven percent and there has been a dramatic increase of interest in homelessness in both
popular and professional literatures over the past 10–15 years. Public opinion polls have
indicated genuine concern about the problem and a variety of studies on homelessness
have been completed. Many of the earliest of these studies documented the characteristics
of the homeless populations in our cities, often focusing on mental health and substance
abuse. More recently, studies have become more methodologically sophisticated
and have investigated a variety of previously unexplored issues. This Special Issue on
Homelessness involves eight papers that illustrate various methodological and conceptual
advances that community psychologists and other researchers have made over the
past decade. As a group, these papers represent eight different data sets involving thousands
of homeless people in five different cities across the nation.
33. Why does the conclusion of a sociological study invariably point the way to new research?
Social life is full of experiences that prompt people to reexamine their surroundings. For example, an unpleasant public encounter may motivate us to try retrospectively to make sense of the event (i.e.,we ask how and why things happened as they did). In many ways, all human beings are novice researchers who give meaning to, interpret, and predict their social world. This work of researching and theorizing about society encompasses an infinite number of topics. For instance, some may wonder about their personal relationships (e.g., ‘Why did my significant other not return my phone call?’), while others may be preoccupied with weightier matters of social justice (e.g.,‘How can we stop all the violence in the world?’) or, as is often the case, we may be interested in both personal and global issues. The specific focus of questions aside, all human beings are interested in understanding and explaining everyday experiences. This basic sense of curiosity is the foundation of social science research, or what may be defined loosely as the act of re-examining the social world with the goal of better understanding or explaining why or how people behave.This elementary definition emphasizes the rediscovery process that is invariably embedded in research. In a sense, the word ‘research’ can literally be interpreted as ‘renewed search,’ or ‘re-examination.’ Naturally, most people are not inclined to invest time or effort to formally study their social environment. Social scientists, by profession, are in the business of exploring all aspects of human behavior and environment.
34. What are the practical and ethical challenges faced by sociologists who wish to conduct participant-observation research?
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Unit two examines sociology as asocial science.The basic principles and stages of scientific method are described. A number of techniques commonly used in sociological research are presented. Particular attention is given to the practical and ethical challenges that sociologists face in studying human behavior and to Max Webers call for value neutrality in social science research.
Learning Objective
After studying this unit, you should be able to answer the following questions:
1. How do sociologists use scientific method
2. Why does the conclusion of a sociological study point the way to new research
3. What are the practical and ethical challenges faced by sociologists who wish to conduct participant-observation research
4. How can sociologists use unobtrusive measures to study social phenomena indirectly
5. Why is it valuable for sociologists to have a code of professional ethics
6. What is the objective of basic sociology, and what relationship should there be between basic and applied sociology
35, Unobtrusive measures. They include a variety of research techniques that have no impact on who or what is being studied. Social scientists and students from the University of Arizona studied people's spending and eating habits by examining household garbage left out on the street. This is an unconventional example of the use of unobtrusive measures in social scientific research.
The basic techniques of unobtrusive measures are the use of statistics and studying cultural, economic and political documents, including newspapers, periodicals, radio and television tapes, diaries, songs, folklore and legal papers, to name a few examples.
It is important to realize that research designs need not be viewed as mutually exclusive. Two or more methods used together may be especially informative. For example, unobtrusive methods have proved to be valuable as a supplement to other research methods. One investigator wished to examine the relationship between reported and actual beer consumption. He obtained a «front door”measure of consumption by asking residents of houses how much beer they drank each week. At the same time, a «backdoor» measure was developed by counting the number of beer cans in their garbage. This backdoor method produced a considerably higher estimate of beer consumption. Ethics of research. Most sociological research uses people as sources of information — as respondents to survey questions, participants in experiments or subjects of observation. That is why in conducting research sociologists must abide by the code of ethics that puts forth the following basic principles:
1. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research.
2. Respect the subject's right to privacy and dignity.
3. Protect subjects from personal harm.
4. Preserve confidentiality.
5. Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance.
6. Disclose all sources of financial support.
36, Why is it valuable for sociologists to have a code of professional ethics?
The American Sociological Association's (ASA's) Code of Ethics sets forth the principles and ethical standards that underlie sociologists ' professional responsibilities and conduct. These principles and standards should be used as guidelines when examining everyday professional activities. They constitute normative statements for sociologists and provide guidance on issues that sociologists may encounter in their professional work. ASA's Code of Ethics consists of an Introduction, a Preamble, five General Principles, and specific Ethical Standards. This Code is also accompanied by the Rules and Procedures of the ASA Committee on Professional Ethics which describe the procedures for filing, investigating, and resolving complaints of unethical conduct. The Preamble and General Principles of the Code are aspirational goals to guide sociologists toward the highest ideals of sociology. Although the Preamble and General Principles are not enforceable rules, they should be considered by sociologists in arriving at an ethical course of action and may be considered by ethics bodies in interpreting the Ethical Standards. The Ethical Standards set forth enforceable rules for conduct by sociologists. Most of the Ethical Standards are written broadly in order to apply to sociologists in varied roles, and the application of an Ethical Standard may vary depending on the context. The Ethical Standards are not exhaustive. Any conduct that is not specifically addressed by this Code of Ethics is not necessarily ethical or unethical. Membership in the ASA commits members to adhere to the ASA Code of Ethics and to the Policies and Procedures of the ASA Committee on Professional Ethics. Members are advised of this obligation upon joining the Association and that violations of the Code may lead to the imposition of sanctions, including termination of membership. ASA members subject to the Code of Ethics may be reviewed under these Ethical Standards only if the activity is part of or affects their work-related functions, or if the activity is sociological in nature. Personal activities having no connection to or effect on sociologists ' performance of their professional roles are not subject to the Code of Ethics. This Code of Ethics articulates a common set of values upon which sociologists build their professional and scientific work. The Code is intended to provide both the general principles and the rules to cover professional situations encountered by sociologists. It has as its primary goal the welfare and protection of the individuals and groups with whom sociologists work. It is the individual responsibility of each sociologist to aspire to the highest possible standards of conduct in research, teaching, practice, and service.
37, List and explain the basic steps of research process
STEP 1:IDENTIFY AND DEVELOP YOUR TOPICSUMMARY: State your topic as a question. For example, if you are interested in finding out about use of alcoholic beverages by college students, you might pose the question, "What effect does use of alcoholic beverages have on the health of college students?" Identify the main concepts or keywords in your question.
STEP 2:FIND BACKGROUND INFORMATION SUMMARY: Look up your keywords in the indexes to subject encyclopedias. Read articles in these encyclopedias to set the context for your research. Note any relevant items in the bibliographies at the end of the encyclopedia articles. Additional background information may be found in your lecture notes, textbooks, and reserve readings.
STEP 3:USE CATALOGS TO FIND BOOKS AND MEDIA SUMMARY: Use guided keyword searching to find materials by topic or subject. Print or write down the citation (author, title,etc.) and the location information (call number and library). Note the circulation status. When you pull the book from the shelf, scan the bibliography for additional sources. Watch for book-length bibliographies and annual reviews on your subject; they list citations to hundreds of books and articles in one subject area. Check the standard subject subheading "--BIBLIOGRAPHIES," or titles beginning with Annual Review of... in the Cornell Library Classic Catalog.
STEP 4:USE INDEXES TO FIND PERIODICAL ARTICLES SUMMARY: Use periodical indexes and abstracts to find citations to articles. The indexes and abstracts may be in print or computer-based formats or both. Choose the indexes and format best suited to your particular topic; ask at the reference desk if you need help figuring out which index and format will be best. You can find periodical articles by the article author, title, or keyword by using the periodical indexes in the Library home page. If the full text is not linked in the index you are using, write down the citation from the index and search for the title of the periodical in the Cornell Library Classic Catalog. The catalog lists the print, microform, and electronic versions of periodicals at Cornell.
STEP 5: FIND ADDITIONAL INTERNET RESOURCES
Nearly everyone is aware of and uses Google and its branches, Google Scholar, Google Books, Google News, YouTube, etc., to search and find information on the open Internet (as opposed to the subscription-only resources you will encounter in steps 2 through 4 above). Here are links to other search engines. You can also check to see if there is a research guide (a subject guide or a course guide) created by librarians specifically for your topic or your class that links to recommended resources.
STEP 6: EVALUATE WHAT YOU FIND
SUMMARY: See How to Critically Analyze Information Sources and Distinguishing Scholarly from Non-Scholarly Periodicals: A Checklist of Criteria for suggestions on evaluating the authority and quality of the books and articles you located.
STEP 7: CITE WHAT YOU FIND USING A STANDARD FORMAT
Give credit where credit is due; cite your sources.
Citing or documenting the sources used in your research serves two purposes, it gives proper credit to the authors of the materials used, and it allows those who are reading your work to duplicate your research and locate the sources that you have listed as references.
Knowingly representing the work of others as your own is plagarism. (See Cornell's Code of Academic Integrity). Use one of the styles listed below or another style approved by your instructor. Handouts summarizing the APA and MLA styles are available at Uris and Olin Reference.
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