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Functionalist view to the social institutions.

One way to understand so­cial institutions is to see how they fulfill essential functions. Anthropologist David F. Aberle and his colleagues (1950) and sociologists Raymond Mack and Calvin Bradford (1979:12-22) have identified five major tasks, or functional prereq­uisites, that a society or relatively permanent group must accomplish if it is to survive.

1 Replacing personnel. Any society or group must replace personnel when they die, leave, or be­come incapacitated. This is accomplished through immigration, annexation of neighboring groups of people, acquisition of slaves, or normal sexual reproduction of members. The Shakers, a religious sect found in the United States, are a conspicuous example of a group that failed to replace personnel. The Shakers' religious doc­trines forbade any physical contact between the sexes; therefore, the group's survival depended on recruiting new members. At first, the Shakers proved quite effective in attracting members; however, their recruitment subsequently de­clined dramatically. Despite this fact, the Shakers maintained their commitment to celibacy, and their numbers eventually dwindled to only a few members today (S. Anderson and Dunlap, 1986; Mitman, 1988).

2 Teaching new recruits. No group can survive if many of its members reject the established behav­ior patterns and responsibilities of the group. As a result, finding or producing new members is not sufficient. The group must encourage re­cruits to learn and accept its values and customs. This learning can take place formally within schools (where learning is a manifest function) or informally through interaction and negotiation in peer groups (where instruction is a latent func­tion).

3 Producing and distributing goods and services. Any relatively permanent group or society must provide and distribute desired goods and services for its members. Each society establishes a set of rules for the allocation of financial and other re­sources. The group must satisfy the needs of most members at least to some extent or it will risk the possibility of discontent and, ultimately, disorder.

4 Preserving order. The native people of Tas­mania, a large island just south of Australia, are now extinct. During the 1800s, they were de­stroyed by the hunting parties of European con­querors, who looked upon the Tasmanians as half-human. This annihilation underscores a crit­ical function of every group or society— preserving order and protecting itself from at­tack. When faced with the more-developed European technology of warfare, the Tasmanians were unable to defend themselves and an entire people were wiped out.

5 Providing and maintaining a sense of purpose. People must feel motivated to continue as mem­bers of a society in order to fulfill the previous four requirements. The behavior of American prisoners of war (POWs) while in confinement during the war in Vietnam is a testament to the importance of maintaining a sense of purpose. While in prison camps, some of these men men­tally made elaborate plans for marriage, family, children, reunions, and new careers. A few even built houses in their minds—right down to the last doorknob or water faucet. By holding on to a sense of purpose—their intense desire to return to American society and live normal lives—the POWs refused to allow the agony of confinement to destroy their mental health.

Many aspects of a society can assist people in developing and maintaining a sense of purpose. For some people, religious values or personal moral codes are most crucial; for others, national

or tribal identities are especially meaningful. Whatever these differences, there remains one common and critical reality. If an individual does not have a sense of purpose, he or she has little reason to contribute to a society's survival.

This list of functional prerequisites does not spec­ify the type of social structure necessary to per­form each task. For example, one society may protect itself from external attack by maintaining a frightening arsenal of weaponry, while another may make determined efforts to remain neutral in world politics and to promote cooperative rela­tionships with its neighbors. No matter what its particular strategy, any society or relatively per­manent group must attempt to satisfy all these functional prerequisites for survival. If it fails on even one condition, as the Tasmanians did, the society runs the risk of extinction.

16) How has the socialization process changed in the 20th century? How have these changes affected childhood?

In the 20^th century socialization occurs through human interac­tions. We will, of course, learn a great deal from those people most important in our lives— immediate family members, best friends, teach­ers, and so forth. But we also learn from people we see on the street, on television, and in films and magazines. Through interacting with people as well as through our own observations, we dis­cover how to behave "properly" and what to ex­pect from others if we follow (or challenge) society's norms and values.

Socialization affects the overall cultural prac­tices of a society, and it also shapes the image that we hold of ourselves. For example, in the United States, a person who is viewed as "too heavy" or "too short" does not conform to the ideal cultural standard. If he or she is judged unattractive, the evaluation can significantly influence the person's self-esteem. In this sense, socialization experi­ences can have an impact on the shaping of peo­ple's personalities. In everyday speech, the term personality is used to refer to a person's typical patterns of attitudes, needs, characteristics, and behavior.

This chapter will examine the role of socializa­tion in human development. It will begin by ana­lyzing the debate over the relative influence of heredity and environmental factors. Particular attention will be given to how people develop per­ceptions, feelings, and beliefs about themselves. The chapter will explore the lifelong nature of the socialization process as well as important agents of socialization, among them the family, schools, and the media. Finally, the social policy section will focus on day care for young children as a socialization experience.