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• Morphological
e.g. H.Sweet, Otto Jespersen:
- declinable words:- indeclinable words termed ‘ particles ’
Noun-words,
Adjective-words,
Verbs
• Syntactico-distributional
Charles Fries [fri:z]
‘each class of words is characterized by a set of positions in a sentence’
Substitution testing
- 4 classes of form words (occupy 4 main positions in a sentence)
Classes of form words –
class 1 ~ nouns
class 2 ~ verbs
class 3 ~ adjectives
class 4 ~ adverbs
- Function words – outside the 4 main positions in a sentence
154 words – 15 classes
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• Pronouns are classed together with the word they substitute
Notional and functional words
criteria for differentiating:
1) the ‘prominence’ of their lexical meaning;
Peculiarities of their combinability
Ability to be substituted by a word of a more general meaning
4) ability to add / create new items
Notional words: Functional words:
(1) … … … (1) … … …
(2) … … … (2) … … …
(3) … … … (3) … … …
(4) … … … (4) … … …
Groups of functional words (function words – Ch.Fries)
• with a … combinability – articles, auxiliaries, modals, particles
• with a … combinability – prepositions & conjunctions which connect 2 or more notional words or word-groups
• heterogeneous subclass uniting introductory it / there, interrogative words, interjections, etc.
There may be groups of closed-system items (functional words) within an open class (notional words) – e.g. notional, functional & auxiliary verbs
The category of Number
Discreteness non-discreteness
Count uncount
Non-pl. vs Pl. Sg only
oneness more-than-oneness Pl. only indiscrete entities
a single discrete multiplicity of discrete <… no boundaries entity entities
Topic 3
VERBAL CATEGORIES DENOTING TIME AND CHARACTER OF THE ACTION
The category of Representation
The verb system falls into two major subsystems:
Finite forms (conjugated):
• used in the function of the predicate (predicative forms);
• express the crucial categories of predication: mood, tense, person.
Non-finite forms (non-conjugated) / verbals, verbids:
• cannot be used as predicates – perform any other syntactic function;
• have no predicative categories.
The category of Representation (A.I.Smirnitsky) / Finitude (L.S.Barkhudarov, Ya.Blokh).
FINITE FORMS vs NON-FINITE FORMS
Pure process nominalized process (process as substance or quality)
Verbal representation Nominal representation
Substantival Adjectival
Gerund Infinitive Participle I & II
The category of TENSE
· Time and Tense
· Grammatical and lexical expression of Time
· Absolute and relative grammatical expression of Time
Universal TIME
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