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Compound sentences are made up of two or more simple sentences combined using a conjunction such as and, or or but. They are made up of more than one independent clause joined together with a co-ordinating conjunction.
For example:
"The sun was setting in the west and the moon was just rising."
Each clause can stand alone as a sentence.
For example:
"The sun was setting in the west. The moon was just rising."
Every clause is like a sentence with a subject and a verb. A coordinating conjunction goes in the middle of the sentence, it is the word that joins the two clauses together, the most common are (and, or, but)
For example:
I walked to the shops, but my husband drove.
I might watch the film, or I might visit my friends.
My friend enjoyed the film, but she didn't like the actor.
Complex Sentences
Reduction of grammatical oppositions.
The theory of Gram. opp-s by Jacobson is very popular in modern linguistics, it is steal in development & professor Blokh formulated the law of reduction of oppositions. It’s aim is to systematize & explain mechanisms of unusual facts in language. In some cases a category can be reduced.
Reduction is the use of one opposeme instead of the other when the whole opposition looses it’s distinctive force. R. can be on 2 ways: neutralization & transposition.
N. is disappearance of one of the forms for some words or constructions (custom (îáû÷àé) – customs (îáû÷àè), customs (òàìîæíÿ); present instead of future in clauses of time or condition).T. is the use of some grammar form in unusual environment for changing lexical meaning or some stylistic effect. It can be of 2 types: descending & ascending. In D. type we use marked form instead of unmarked (We, Elizabeth 2); in A. type we use unmarked form instead of marked (many a day).
4.Synthetic & analytical means of form building. There are two basic types of means with the help of which grammatical forms are built: synthetical and analytical. Synthetical (synthetic) grammatical forms are built by means of the morphemic composition of the word. This includes the morphemic means: outer inflexion with the help of adding grammatical suffixes to the stems of the words, e.g.: cat - cats; inner inflexion, or vowel interchange inside the root, e.g.: goose - geese; and suppletivity, when different roots are combined within the same paradigm, e.g.: go – went. Analytical grammatical forms are built by the combination of the notional word with auxiliary words, e.g.: come - have come. Analytical forms consist of two words which together express one grammatical meaning. Analytical grammatical forms are prevalent in English; modern English is an analytical type of language.
5. Parts of speech classification. Notional words & functional words. The traditional term “ parts of speech ” is accepted by modern linguistics as a conventional, or “non-explanatory” term (“name-term”) to denote the lexico-grammatical classes of words correlating with each other in the general system of language on the basis of their grammatically relevant properties. Parts of speech are classified according 4 criteria:
· Semantic. Each part of speech has it’s own categorical meaning. Substantivity for nouns, action of process for verbs, quality for adjectives.
· Formal (morphological). It is connected with possible ways of form building &with grammatical categories this part of speech has.
· Functional is connected with synthetic roles this word fulfils in the sentence.
· Distributional describes each part of speech from the view point of it’s environment.
· In reality non of these criteria is absolute, because each of them works not for all words on the same part of speech.
Classifications: Henry Sweet: takes into consideration morphological principle.
- declinable (nouns, adjectives, verbs), - indeclinable (adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, particles& interjections).
By syntactic approach: - noun words (noun-pronouns, noun-numerals, infinitive), - function like/as nouns (adjective words, adjective pronouns, adjective numerals, participles), - verbal group (finite/non-finite form of verb).
Jespersen functional approach: functional approach:
- primary (subject of the sentence)
- secondary (define the primary words)
- tertiary (submit to this secondary group) e.g. furiously(3) barking(2) dog(1)
Pr. Admony propose field theory the new nucleus of the field occupied with words possessing all the properties of the giving parts of speech.
1) Verb: action or state; ex.: (to) be, have, do, like, work, sing, can, must.
2) Noun: thing or person; ex.: pen, dog, work, music, town, London, teacher, John.
3) Adjective: describes a noun; ex. 69, some, good, big, red, well, interesting.
4) Adverb: describes a verb, adjective or adverb; ex.: quickly, silently, well, badly, very, really.
5) Pronoun: replaces a noun; ex.; I, you, he, she, some.
6) Preposition: links a noun to another word; ex.: to, at, after, on, but.
7) Conjunction: joins clauses or sentences or words; ex.: and, but, when.
8) Interjection: short exclamation, sometimes inserted into a sentence; ex.: oh!, ouch!, hi!, well.
Notional words & functional.
This opposition exists in most languages because they are words that name objects, actions, qualities & their meaning is denotative & they are words that do not name objects & phenomena but they establish relations between them.
The meaning of functional words is relative.
Parts of speech:
Autosemantic (notional parts of speech) – noun, verb, pronoun, adjective, adverb, numeral.
Synsemantic (function words) – preposition, conjunction, particle, article, auxiliary verb, copula, interjection.
Function words are treated in linguistics in a different view point. Some linguistics regard functional words as empty words. It means that they are devoid of lexical meaning. But at the same time such empty words can be meaningful because they make speech coherent.
Traditional grammar finds in functional words not only grammatical but also lexical meaning. But it is not denotative but naming relations between other parts of speech. Relations of time, course, place (after, during, before).
All functional words are classified according to their function:
Syntactic function (connectors) – link notional words but there are some differences. Prepositions link words, conjunction link clauses, copula unites subject & the predicate. (prepositions, conjunctions, copula).
Morphological f. (determiners) – makes the article more precise. Articles determine nouns are definite or indefinite. Auxiliary verbs have 2 functions: 1) to determine gram. form 2) to determine communicative sentence type (negative/interrogative).(article, auxiliary verb).Communicative f. (specifies) – are used to specify the speaker’s intension. They give logical expressiveness on some word in the sentence like particles. Interjections specify emotions of the speakers. (particle, interjections).
6. Noun as part as speech. In linguistics, a noun is a member of a large, open lexical category whose members can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.The syntactic rules for nouns differ from language to language. In English, nouns may be defined as those words which can occur with articles and attributive adjectives and can function as the head of a noun phrase.In traditional English grammar, the noun is one of the eight parts of speech. they are all and only those expressions that refer to a person, place, thing, event, substance, quality, quantity, or idea, etc. This is a semantic definition.
Classification of nouns in English:Proper nouns (also called proper names) are nouns representing unique entities (such as London, Jupiter, or Toyota), as distinguished from common nouns which describe a class of entities ñóùåñòâî (such as city, planet, person or car). ountable and uncountable nouns Count nouns are common nouns that can take a plural, can combine with numerals or quantifiers (e.g., one, two, several, every, most), and can take an indefinite article (a or an). Examples of count nouns are chair, nose, and occasion. Mass nouns (or non-count nouns) differ from count nouns in precisely that respect: they can't take plural or combine with number words or quantifiers. Examples from English include laughter, cutlery, helium, and furniture. Collective nouns are nouns that refer to groups consisting of more than one individual or entity, even when they are inflected for the singular. Examples include committee, herd, and school (of fish). Concrete nouns refer to physical entities that can, in principle at least, be observed by at least one of the senses (for instance, chair, apple, Janet or atom). Abstract nouns, on the other hand, refer to abstract objects; that is, ideas or concepts (such as justice or hatred).
7.NUMBER: Singular, Dual, Plural
Nouns in some languages reflect the number of objects to which they refer. English distinguishes only two numbers, singular and plural. The former is used to indicate singular objects or referents that can be neither singular nor plural (mass nouns like contemplation). Plural sometimes refers to singular objects, too, e.g. glasses, so the category is clearly grammatical and not semantic.
Some languages, Arabic or Old Church Slavonic, for example, also distinguish objects occurring in pairs by assigning dual number to the noun and a few languages distinguish a paucal, used for referring to a few objects without specifying number.
8. The category of case of English nouns. It’s a form of a noun showing the relations of that noun to other words in the sent. It helps to define the syntactic function of the N. in the sent. It’s a morphological category in English, because it’s represented by dif. w-forms of one and the same noun. Most linguists regard it as such & agree that the Eng. noun has 2 distinct cases, because it has 2 distinct form cases.
The genitive case- is built up by the opposition of 2 forms (the com.case & the genet.case). The form of the gen. case is marked. The formal marker is the case morpheme is represented by a number of phonol. conditioned allomorphs [s, z, iz]. It’s characterized by a number of points limit in its use in the lang. Its mainly applied to names of human beings, but it can be used with some inanimate nouns: esp. denoting time & space relations (yesterday’s paper) and some adverbs…
The common case- this form is unmarked & is represented by a zero morpheme. In plural nouns the case morpheme & the number morpheme are very often expressed by one & the same morpheme “ ‘ “: boys’ toys. In nouns that build up the plural with the help of other means but “s” (children, women) the case morpheme is expressed separately by the suffix ‘s which follows the morpheme of number.The mean-g of the common case is very broad & extensive, it simply shows that this or that N is non-genetive. It can be used in any syntactic positions in the sent. The use of nouns in the common case is very frequent (98%).
The method of transformational analysis: the mean-g of gen.case:
1) possessive (John’s car, the bird’s nest) = John has a car
2) the subjective genitive (doctor’s advice, my husband’s arrival). Can be transformed: the doctor adviced…- the doer/subject of the action
3) the objective mean-g (John’s punishment, surprise) 2 ways of transformation: John was punished, smb surprised John- the sufferer of the action.
4) adverbial genitive (2 hours’ work)
5) genitive of destination (men’s shoes)
The number of cases in Modern English: there are dif. views on this problem. Historically there was one common case system for both nouns & personal pronouns in old English. Some scholars try to introduce a 3 case system. According to them nouns & personal pronouns have nominative case. Other scholars(J.Curme): find 4 cases –nominative, genitive, dative, accusative. Prof. Voroncova thinks that the category of case doesn’t exist in English because it’s not a case inflection(îêîí÷àíèÿ).
Gender
The fact is, the category of gender in English differs from the category of gender in many other languages, for example, in Russian, in French or in German. The category of gender linguistically may be either meaningful (or, natural ), rendering the actual sex-based features of the referents, or formal ( arbitrary ). In English gender is a meaningful category for the whole class of the nouns. It is realized through obligatory correspondence of every noun with the 3rd person singular pronouns - he, she, or it: man – he, woman – she, tree, dog – it.
The category of gender is formed by two oppositions organized hierarchically. The first opposition is general and opposes human, or person nouns, distinguishing masculine and feminine gender (man – he, woman – she) and all the other, non-human, non-person nouns, belonging to the neuter gender (tree, dog – it). The second opposition is formed by the human nouns only: on the lower level of the opposition the nouns of masculine gender and of feminine gender are opposed.
Gender+ Person nouns,Non-person nouns (tree - it)
+Feminine nouns (woman - she) Masculine nouns (man -he)
Gender is a constant feature category: it is expressed not through variable forms of words, but through nounal classification; each noun belongs to only one of the three genders.
10.Adjectives. The adjective expresses the categorial meaning of property of a substance, e.g.: hard work. That means that semantically the adjective is a bound word of partial nominative value: it can not be used without a word denoting the substance which it characterizes. When the adjective is used independently it is substantivized, i.e. it acquires certain features of a noun.Adjectives are distinguished by a specific combinability with the nouns which they modify, with link verbs and with modifying adverbs. The functions performed by the adjective correlate with their combinability: when combined with nouns, adjectives perform the function of an attribute (either in preposition to the noun modified or in post-position if accompanied by adjuncts), e.g.: a suspicious man; a man suspicious of his wife; when combined with link verbs they perform the function of a predicative (part of a compound nominal predicate), e.g.: The man was very suspicious of his wife. Formally, adjectives are characterized by a specific set of word-building affixes, e.g.: hope ful, flaw less, blu ish, fam ous, decorat ive, accur ate, in accurate, bas ic, etc.Adjectives are traditionally divided on the basis of their semantics into two grammatically relevant subclasses: qualitative and relative adjectives. Qualitative adjectives denote the qualities of objects as such, e.g.: red, long, beautiful, etc. Relative adjectives denote qualities of objects in relation to other objects; such adjectives are usually derived from nouns, e.g.: wood – wooden, ice – icy, etc. Statives. Among the words denoting substantive properties there is a set of words denoting states that are used predominantly in the predicative function and are united by a common formal mark, the prefix ‘ a- ’, e.g.: afraid, afire, alike, etc. (cf.: the suffix ‘ -o ’ in Russian - õîëîäíî, òåïëî, âåñåëî, etc.) Their part of speech status is rather problematic. Traditionally they are referred to as “predicative adjectives” The category of comparison expresses the quantitative characteristics of the quality rendered by the adjective. Three forms constitute this category: the positive degree, the comparative degree, and the superlative degree forms of the adjective. The basic form, known as the positive degree, has no special formal mark, e.g.: tall, beautiful; the comparative degree is marked by two kinds of forms; synthetical forms with the suffix “-er ” and analytical forms with the auxiliary word more, e.g .: taller, more beautiful; the superlative degree is also formed either synthetically with the help of the grammatical suffix “-est ”, or analytically with the help of the auxiliary word most, e.g .: tallest, most beautiful. The synthetic and analytical degrees stand in complementary distribution to each other, their choice is determined by syllabo-phonetic forms of adjectives. Also, there are suppletive forms of the degrees of comparison, e.g.: bad – worse – worst
11.Pronoun is a pro-form that substitutes for a noun (or noun phrase) with or without a determiner, such as you and they in English.
Pronoun is a very heterogeneous part of speech because different types of pronouns have quite different features.
Personal (N) – I, you, he, they; have number, nominative & objective case;
Possessive (A) – my, his, their; have number, nominative & possessive case; mine, their - absolute form.
Reflexive (N, particle) – myself; have number, have not case;
Reciprocal (N) – âçàèìîâîçâðàò. Each other, one another; have not number, have not case;
Demonstrative (art) – this, that, these, those; have number, have not case;
Indefinite (N) – íåîïð. Any, some (-thing); have not number, have case;
Interrogative (N) – who, which, what; have not number, have not case (exception “whom”);
Negative (N) – nothing, nobody; have not number, have case;
Relative (A,cj) - who, which, what; have not number, have not case (exception “whom”);
Quantitative (N,A) – some, much, few; have not number, have not case.
These types tend to different parts of speech. At the same time in all traditional grammars such words are referred to the same part of speech. There are 2 reasons for it: the first is type of meaning. It is relative in all functional words but we can’t really refer pronouns to such words. Functional words cannot be sentence part, but pronouns can. Pronouns have a specific quality, It is deictic (óêàçàíèå íà ÷òî òî) by nature. It means that the meaning of pronoun depends on a situation. They never name but they point at. The second reason is that all pronouns fulfill the same function substitution.
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