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At the lexical level, there are a great many words, which due to their expressiveness constitute a special layer.
1) Metaphors – compares two different things by speaking of one in terms of the other. Unlike a simile or analogy, metaphor asserts that one thing is another thing, not just that one is like another. Very frequently a metaphor is invoked by the to be verb:
Affliction then is ours; / We are the trees whom shaking fastens more. --George Herbert
2) Allegory – Allegory. A figurative work in which a surface narrative carries a secondary, symbolic or metaphorical meaning. In The Faerie Queene, for example, Red Cross Knight is a heroic knight in the literal narrative, but also a figure representing Everyman in the Christian journey. Many works contain allegories or are allegorical in part, but not many are entirely allegorical.
3) Personification - metaphorically represents an animal or inanimate object as having human attributes--attributes of form, character, feelings, behavior, and so on. Ideas and abstractions can also be personified.
The ship began to creak and protest as it struggled against the rising sea.
We bought this house instead of the one on Maple because this one is more friendly.
4) Simile – is a comparison between two different things that resemble each other in at least one way. In formal prose the simile is a device both of art and explanation, comparing an unfamiliar thing to some familiar thing (an object, event, process, etc.) known to the reader.
5) Irony – mix of connotations: Cheating on test is humane
6) Metonymy – is another form of metaphor, very similar to synecdoche (and, in fact, some rhetoricians do not distinguish between the two), in which the thing chosen for the metaphorical image is closely associated with (but not an actual part of) the subject with which it is to be compared.
7) Zeugma – is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two asjactent words in the context, the semantic relation being on the one hand, literal, and, on the other, transferred.
8) Epithet – is a SD based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaningsin an attributive word/phrase or even sentence. A) simple, B) Compound – epithet are built like compound adjective. C) Phrase epithet, D) Sentence epithet
9) Oxymoron – showscontraversion feelings. Up the down staires
10) Similie – the intonsification of some one feature of the concept in question is realised in this SD.
10. International words. Etymological doublets. Translation-loans.
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