Some time ago there were linguists who treated pref-n as part of w-d-composition. The greater semantic independence of prefixes as compared with suf-s led the linguists to identify pref-s with the first component of a compound w-d (E.Kruisinga). At present: the majority of scholars regard pref-s as derivational aff-s.
H. Marchand: overdo, underestimate, income, onlooker, outhouse—compounds with locative particles as 1st elem-s (not pfxs)
2 types of prefixes are to be distinguished:
1) those not correlated with any independent w-d (either notional or functional):
2) those correlated with any independent w-d (prepositions or preposition-like adverbs)
out-, over-, up-, under- — are called semi-bound morphemes.
to overpass, over the river; to outline, to take smb. out;
upstairs, to look up; under the table, undercurrent
~ according to the lexico-gram. character of the base they are added to pref-s are↔:
a) deverbal: rewrite, outstay, overdo;
b) denominal: unbutton, detrain, ex-president;
c) deadjectival: biannual, uneasy.
~ according to the denotational meaning:
a) negative: un-, non-, in-, dis-, a- (amoral, asymmetry);
b) pref. of time & order: fore-, pre-, post-, ex- —foretell, foreknowledge, pre-war, post
c) of repetition: re- — rebuild
d) locative: super-, sub-, trans-, inter- — superstructure, subway, intercontinental, transatlantic;
e) pejorative: mis-, mal- pseudo- —miscalculate, misinform, maltreat, pseudoclassical;
~ according to their stylistic reference:
a) neutral: un-, over-, re-
b) possessing stylistic value: pseudo-, super-, ultra-, uni-, bi- the literary, bookish char-r: ultraviolet, unilateral (односторонний), bifocal (двухфокусный)
Composition —1 of the most productive types of w-building, in ~ new w-s are produced by combining 2 / > stems. It was active in the OE period & now it is still productive, as > than 1/3 of all new coined w-s in MdE—compound w-s.
Structurally —3 types of compounds: neutral, morphological, syntactic.
In neutral compounds the process of compounding is realised without any linking elements, by a mere juxtaposition of two stems, as in blackbird, shop-window, sunflower, bedroom, tallboy, etc. There are three subtypes of neutral compounds depending on the structure of the constituent stems. The examples above represent the subtype which may be de-scribed as simple neutral compounds: they consist of simple affixless stems. Compounds which have affixes in their structure are called derived or derivational compounds. E. g. absent-mindedness, blue-eyed, golden-haired, broad-shouldered, lady-killer, film-goer, music-lover, honey-mooner, first-nighter, late-comer, newcomer, early-riser, evil-doer. The third subtype of neutral compounds is called contracted compounds. These words have a shortened (contracted) stem in their structure: TV-set, V-day, G-man (Government man "FBI agent"), T-shirt, etc.
Morphological compounds are few in number. This type is non-productive. It is represented by words in which two compounding stems are combined by a linking vowel or consonant, e. g. Anglo-Saxon, Franko-Prussian, handiwork, handicraft, spokesman, statesman.
Syntactic compounds are formed from segments of speech, preserving in their structure numerous traces of syntagmatic relations typical of speech: articles, prepositions, adv, as in the Ns good-for-nothing, mother-in-law, sit-at-home.
According to the degree of semantic cohesion of the constituent parts compound s ↔ idiomatic & non-idiomatic.
Idiomatic comp-s —the meaning of the whole isn’t a mere sum of its elements. Idiomatic comp-s↔
1) comp-s whose 1/2 component has changed its meaning & it is no longer associated with the current meaning of the corresponding free form: blackbird, football, book-keeper, highway (not a way but a broad main road)
2) comp-s in ~ the process of deducing the m-ing of the whole from its constituents--impossible: chatterbox, fuss-pot, blackmail, bluebottle—not a bottle but:1) flower (василёк) 2)insect(муха трупная)3) coll. cop
Non-idiomatic comp-s —comp-s whose meaning can be described as the sum of their constituent meanings: Classroom, medium-sized, theatre-goer, pocket-book, reading-hall, sleeping-car (but in the last 2 we can observe a slight shift of meaning).
Some comp-s are made up of a determining & determined part, ~ m.b. called the determinant & determinatum.
The determinatum (the basic part)—the grammatically most important part ~ undergoes inflections.
The determinant serves to differentiate the determinatum from other determinata: sunbeam: beam — determinatum, sun — determinant (from other beams), brothers-in-law, passers-by.
Endocentric comp-s — comp-s in ~ the constituent elements are clearly the determinant & the determinatum:
maidservant (the 1st elem restricts the wide sphere of servants), looking-glass, green-grocer (who sells veg-s, not who is green)
Exocentric comp-s — opposed to endocentric ones—their determinatum lies outside; it isn’t expressed but implied & understood: killjoy—a person who throws gloom over social enjoyment, pick-pocket—a thief; hangover—an unpleasant after-effect (пережиток, наследие, разг.похмелье)
Bahuvrihi —dessignate possessive exocentric formations in ~ a person / animal / thing are metonymically named after some striking feature they possess, chiefly a striking feature in their appearance. Its formula: Adj.stem + Noun stem. Semantically they are almost invariably characterized by a depreciative (умаляющий, унижающий) ironical emotional tone
fathead—a dull, stupid person (олух, болван), lazy-bones
Conversion— the way of w-d-forming, in ~ a w-d of 1 p/sp is formed from the form of another p/sp by changing its valency and paradigm.
Eye v & eye n—aren’t the same w-d, as they differ by their paradigm & functionally therefore they are different w-s, formed by changing of their paradigms.
2p/sp. are especially affected by conversion—nouns & verbs, N→V—the most numerous: to hand, to back, to monkey, to stage, to nose, to room, to honeymoon.
V→N: a must, a chat, a talk, a fly, a jump, a rush, a make
Adj→V: to pale, to cool, to rough, to wet, to blind, to dirty, to narrow. But he retained my hand, & I could not free it.
Converted w-s have meaning ~ differs from the meaning of the w-d, from ~ it was derived. But their meanings c.b. associated.
N→V
1) the action peculiar to that, denoted by N (to ape, to monkey, to wolf, to father);
2) to act by means of that, denoted by N (to chain, to finger, to water, to iron);
3) to supply, cover with that, denoted by N (to curtain, to dust, to shelter);
4) to deprive of that, denoted by N (to dust, to skin);
5) to place to that denoted by N (to table, to pocket, to house)
V→N
1) isolated action (a jump, a move, a look);
2) an acting object (a drill, a dig);
3) a place of action (ride, forge, drive, walk);
4) an object/result of action (find, tear, peel, burn, catch, lift)
H.Marchand—a very interesting detail: the verbal personal nouns formed by conversion & denoting the doer—mostly derogatory: bore, cheat, flirt, scold, tease.
It’s significant as it shows that the language has in store some patterned morphological ways to convey emotional meaning; these ways can form a parallel to the suffixes denoting deprecation: -ard, -ling, -ster.
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