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Loan-words in English and second foreign language.

Loanwords are words adopted by the speakers of one language from a different language (the source language). A loanword can also be called a borrowing. Examples of loan words in English include: café, bazaar, and kindergarten. Curiously, the word loanword is itself a calque of the German term Lehnwort, while the term calque is a loanword from French.

The abstract noun borrowing refers to the process of speakers adopting words from a source language into their native language. "Loan" and "borrowing" are of course metaphors, because there is no literal lending process. There is no transfer from one language to another, and no "returning" words to the source language. They simply come to be used by a speech community that speaks a different language from the one they originated in.

Borrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between two language communities. The actual process of borrowing is complex and involves many usage events (i.e. instances of use of the new word). Generally, some speakers of the borrowing language know the source language too, or at least enough of it to utilize the relevant words. They adopt them when speaking the borrowing language. If they are bilingual in the source language, which is often the case, they might pronounce the words the same or similar to the way they are pronounced in the source language. For example, English speakers adopted the word garage from French, at first with a pronunciation nearer to the French pronunciation than is now usually found. Presumably the very first speakers who used the word in English knew at least some French and heard the word used by French speakers.

However, in time more speakers can become familiar with a new foreign word. The community of users can grow to the point where even people who know little or nothing of the source language understand, and even use the novel word themselves. The new word becomes conventionalized. At this point we call it a borrowing or loanword. (Not all foreign words do become loanwords; if they fall out of use before they become widespread, they do not reach the loanword stage.)

It is part of the cultural history of English speakers that they have always adopted loanwords from the languages of whatever cultures they have come in contact with. There have been few periods when borrowing became unfashionable, and there has never been a national academy in Britain, the U.S., or other English-speaking countries to attempt to restrict new loanwords, as there has been in many continental European countries.

Examples of loanwords from a dominant field of activity:

Arts – Most of the technical vocabulary of classical music (e.g., concerto, allegro, tempo, aria, opera, soprano) is borrowed from Italian, and that of ballet from French. Business – English exports terms to other languages in business and technology (examples le meeting to French). Philosophy – many technical terms, including the term philosophy itself, derive from Greek dominance in philosophy, mathematics, linguistics, economic theory and political theory in Roman times. Examples include democracy, theory and so on.

Religion – religions may carry with them a large number of technical terms from the language of the originating culture. For example: Arabic (Islam) – hijab

Greek (Christianity) – baptisma has entered many languages, e.g.

10. Sapir's typology

Morphological typology in the 20^th century has been dominated by E.Sapir’s (1884-1939) treatment in Ch.6 of his Language (1921), though Sapir’s typology rests on a tradition extending from the 18^th and 19^th centuries represented by the Schlegel brothers, A.Smith, F.Bopp, W.von Humboldt. In particular, Sapir was influenced by Humboldt and Steinthal.

Sapir refined and redirected the typology of the Humboldt tradition, divorcing it of its historical and evolutionary associations. He incorporated Humboldt’s 4 part morphological typology in his own framework, which utilized the following 4 intersecting dimensions.

1) Pure Relational vs.Mixed-relational languages.

Pure relational languages express syntactic relationships by means of the position of one element in relation to another; thus the syntactic form of a sentence gives it its grammatical significance and relates the concrete elements to one another. In contrast, mixed-relational languages express some syntactic relationships by means of elements that have some concrete significance, such as objects, actions and qualities.

2) Simple vs. Complex. Simple languages don’t modify the meaning or relationships of their radical concepts (i.e. nouns, verbs, etc.) by means of affixation or internal changes, but complex languages do.

3) Morphological Technique or Processes. Sapir classified languages in four morphological types:

· Isolating (analytic) the word consists of a single morpheme

· Agglutinative words consist of a root and invariant affixes that are separable and encode a single grammatical concept.

· Fusional- this contrasts with the agglutinative type in that the affixes have variable forms and may encode several grammatical contrasts simultaneously.

· Symbolic- which utilizes internal changes such as reduplication, vowel and consonant changes and changes in stress and pitch as a means of marking grammatical contrasts.

4) Degree of synthesis. Three types of categories were involved:

· Analytic languages have little or no tendency to combine more than one grammatical concept into single words or morphemes

· Synthetic lang. combine several grammatical concepts to form polymorphemic words.

· Polysynthetic lang. combine long strings of bound morphemes into a single word form that may be translated as whole clauses in English