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In dictionary entries lexicographers often use a graphic symbol, adjacent
to or on top of one of the letters, to indicate what is called the location of
‘accent’ or ‘stress’.If a phonetic transcription is added to the spelling form, the accent
symbol is often a small superscripted vertical line which is placed before
the syllable that is accented. Sometimes the accented syllable is capitalized.
One of these practices is illustrated with a few random examples
from an English dictionary:
escalade [¨EskleId]...escalate [¨EskleIt]...
One of the oldest notions in stress typology is that of fixed versus free stress
languages. Fixed stress is predictable in its location, and usually derived by an
algorithm, while free stress is unpredictable and must be lexically listed.
In fixed systems, stress is primarily determined by phonological factors that
build prosodic structure based on syllable weight and prominence, limitations
on the distance between stresses, and between stress and word boundaries. On
the other hand, in free systems, stress can practically occur anywhere in the
word because morphological constituency interferes with prosodic factors in
stress assignment. Lexical accent systems are considered to be a subgroup of
free systems.English words have certain patterns of stress which you should observe strictly if you want to be understood. Languages in which the position of the stress can usually be predicted by a simple rule are said to have fixed stress. For example, in Czech, Finnish, Icelandic and Hungarian the stress almost always comes on the first syllable of a word; in Quechua and Polish the stress is almost always on the penultimate syllable; while in Macedonian it comes on the antepenult (third syllable from the end). Other languages have stress placed on different syllables but in a predictable way, as in Classical Arabic and Latin (where stress is conditioned by the structure of the penultimate syllable). They are said to have a regular stress rule.
Languages in which the position of stress in a word is less predictable are said to have variable stress. This applies to English and Russian, and to some extent to Italian and Spanish. Here stress is truly lexical: it must be memorized as part of the pronunciation of an individual word. In such languages stress may be phonemic, in that it can serve to distinguish otherwise identical words; for example, the English words insight and incite are distinguished in pronunciation only by the fact that the stress falls on the first syllable in the former and on the second syllable in the latter. Other examples include umschreiben ("rewrite") vs. umschreiben ("paraphrase, outline") in German, земли́ (genitive of "earth, land") vs. зе́мли (plural of "earth, land") in Russian, ancora ("anchor") and ancora ("more, still, yet") in Italian. English compound nouns can change their meaning based on stress, as with paper bág (a bag made of paper) and páper bag (a bag for carrying newspapers).
Stress placement for some words may differ between dialects. For example, in British English the word labóratory is pronounced with primary stress on the second syllable, while American English stresses the first syllable, láboratory.
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