Читайте также:
|
Linguistic typology is a subfield of linguistics that studies and classifies languages according to their structural features. Its aim is to describe and explain the common properties and the structural diversity of the world`s language. It includes three subdisciplines:
Qualitative typology, which deals with the issue of comparing languages and within language variance;
Quantitative typology, which deals with the distribution of structural patterns in the world`s languages;
Theoretical typology, which explains these distributions
Typology (anthropology), division of culture by races Typology (archaeology), classification of artifacts according to their characteristics Typology (creation biology), system that classifies animals into groups called "created kinds" or "baramins" Typology (linguistics), study and classification of languages according to their structural features Typology (psychology), a model of personality types Typology (theology), in Christian theology, the interpretation of some characters and stories in the Old Testament as allegories foreshadowing the New Testament Typology (urban planning and architecture), the classification of characteristics common to buildings or urban spaces
44. The typology of morphological systems of comparative languages. Part of speech. Morphology is the identification, analysis, and description of the structure of a given language's morphemes and other linguistic units, such as root words, affixes, parts of speech. A morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in a language. The field of study dedicated to morphemes is called morphology. A morpheme is not identical to a word, and the principal difference between the two is that a morpheme may or may not stand alone, whereas a word, by definition, is freestanding. Every word comprises one or more morphemes. The morphemic structure of words reveals that they are composed of morphemes of different types: root-morphemes and affixational morphemes. The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of the word; it has a very general and abstract lexical meaning common to a set of semantically related words constituting one word-cluster, e.g. (to)teach, teacher, teaching. Morphemes are commonly classified into free morphemes (which can occur as separate words)
bound morphemes (which can't stand alone as words). Free morphemes can function independently as words (e.g. town, dog) and can appear with other lexemes. (e.g. town hall, doghouse). Bound morphemes appear only as parts of words, always in conjunction with a root and sometimes with other bound morphemes. For example, un- appears only accompanied by other morphemes to form a word. Most bound morphemes in English are affixes, particularly prefixes and suffixes, examples of suffixes are: tion, ation, ible, ing, etc. Bound morphemes can be further classified as derivational or inflectional. Derivational morphemes, when combined with a root, change either the semantic meaning or part of speech of the affected word. For example, in the word happiness, the addition of the bound morpheme -ness to the root happy changes the word from an adjective (happy) to a noun (happiness). Derivational affixes are relevant for building various types of words. They are lexically always dependent on the root which they modify. They possess the same types of meaning as found in roots, but unlike root-morphemes most of them have the part-of-speech meaning which makes them structurally the important part of the word as they condition the lexico-grammatical class the word belongs to.
Inflectional morphemes modify a verb's tense or a noun's number without affecting the word's meaning or class. Examples of applying inflectional morphemes to words are adding -s to the root dog to form dogs and adding -ed to wait to form waited. Affixational morphemes include inflectional affixes or inflections and derivational affixes. Inflections carry only grammatical meaning and are thus relevant only for the formation of word-forms. Part of speech is the common name for a word class --a category into which words are placed according to the work they do in a sentence. Noun any abstract or concrete entity; a person, place, thing, idea. Pronoun any substitute for a noun or noun phrase Adjective any qualifier of a noun Verb any action (walk), occurrence (happen), or state of being (be) Adverb any qualifier of an adjective, verb, clause, sentence, or other adverb Preposition any establisher of relation and syntactic context Conjunction any syntactic connector Interjection any emotional greeting (or "exclamation")
45.Social typology. Functional variety of languages. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. It studies how social factors influence the structure and use of language.
Language variety refers to the various forms of language triggered by social factors. Language may changes from region to region, from one social class to another, from individual to individual and from situation to situation. Language varieties cover:
Standart language, dialects, registers, pidgins, creoles
Standart language. For social political reasons, a variety of language may be officially elevated as the national lang, such a lang variety is called standart lang. In china, Putonghua is respected as the satandart l, in Britain, the Received Pronunciation (RP) the SL and in USA Standart American Eng (SAE) the SL.
Dialects. A variety of a lang used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class is called a dialect. Dialects are categorized into 4 types:
1. Regional/geographical dialects: varieties of a lang spoken in a geographical area.
2. Temporal dialects: varieties of a lang used at particular stages in its historical development.
3. Social dialects: varieties of a lang used by people belonging to particular social classes.
4. Idiolects; varieties of a lang used by individual speakers, with peculiarities of pronunciation, grammar and voc.
Registers are varieties of lang used in different situations, which are identified by the degrees of formality. Pidgin is a mixed lang with small vocabulary and a simple grammar used by speakers of two lang.s to communicate. Two features of pidgin lang.s: 1. A pidgin has no native speakers
2. It is a simplified lang with reduced voc and grammar. Creole: When a pidgin begins to acqure native speakers who use it as their primary lang, the pidgin turns to be a creole.
46. The types of Bilingualism. Bilingualism and Education. Bilingualism is the ability to speak or write fluently in two or more languages. To learn his or her first language, a child spends quite a while listening, repeating, and learning by trial and error during the first five years of life. Bilingualism is divided into three different types. Both co-ordinated bilingualism and compound bilingualism develop in early childhood and are classified as forms of early bilingualism. The third type is late bilingualism, which develops when a second language is learned after age 12. In co-ordinated bilingualism, children develop two parallel linguistic systems, so that for any one word, the child has two signifiers and two signifieds. One situation in which a child may develop co-ordinated bilingualism is when the two parents have different mother tongues and each parent speaks only his or her own mother tongue to the child. In response, the child constructs two separate linguistic systems and can handle each of them easily. Another such situation is when relatively young children who have already mastered their mother tongue are adopted by parents who speak a different language. Once again, the distinction between the two languages is crystal-clear for the child. In compound bilingualism, children have only one signified for two signifiers and so cannot detect the conceptual differences between the two languages. Compound bilingualism is what occurs when both parents are bilingual and both parents speak to the child in both languages indiscriminately. The child will grow up to speak both languages effortlessly and without an accent, but will never master all the subtleties of either of them. In other words, the child will not really have a mother tongue. Late bilingualism is defined in contrast to early bilingualism, because late bilingualism is developed after the critical period for language learning. In such cases, it is thought that when people acquire their second language through immersion in a community that speaks it, implicit memory plays more of a role, whereas when they do so solely through formal classroom studies, explicit memory is more involved. Bilingualism is a term that has been used to describe an attribute of individual children as well as social institutions. At both levels, the topic has been dominated by controversy. On the individual level, debate has centered on the possible costs and benefits of bilingualism in young children. On the societal level, fiery argument can be witnessed in the United States about the wisdom of bilingual education and the official support of languages other than English in public institutions.
47. Language in Society/Society in Language. Language and dialect. Language is basic to social interactions, affecting them and being affected by them. Society - that is a social-cultural group of people which is in some relations to each other and to external world. And the nature of relation language and society studies sociolinguistics.
A society or a human society is a group of people related to each other though persistent relations or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or virtual territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Human societies are characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions.
Social changes produce changes in language. This affects values in ways that have not been accurately understood. Language incorporates social values.
Language and society are two different systems since the structure within language centres on the static signifier whilst the structure within consciousness orientates on the dynamic signified. Dialects. A variety of a lang used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class is called a dialect. Dialects are categorized into 4 types:
1. Regional/geographical dialects: varieties of a lang spoken in a geographical area.
2. Temporal dialects: varieties of a lang used at particular stages in its historical development.
3. Social dialects: varieties of a lang used by people belonging to particular social classes.
4. Idiolects; varieties of a lang used by individual speakers, with peculiarities of pronunciation, grammar and voc.
Дата добавления: 2015-02-16; просмотров: 101 | Поможем написать вашу работу | Нарушение авторских прав |