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Normative: The prescription of values and standards of conduct; what ‘should be’ rather
than what ‘is’.
Objective: External to the observer, demonstrable;
7. The empirical approach to political analysis.
The scientific method, in which findings are based on objective, systematic observation and verified through public inspection of methods and results, is the dominant methodological approach in political science. The ultimate goal of science, which is not always attained, is to use verifiable results to construct causal theories that explain why phenomena behave the way they do.
Scientific knowledge exhibits several characteristics, nine of which are particularly noteworthy:
Science depends on empirical verification to confirm that statements are true through objective observation.
Statements or hypotheses must be falsifiable, meaning that the statements or hypotheses can be refuted through contravening empirical evidence.
Scientific knowledge must be transmissible—the methods used in making scientific discoveries must be made explicit so that others can analyze and replicate findings.
Scientific knowledge is cumulative because scientists build upon the research techniques and results of previous work in advancing the scientific enterprise.
Science summarizes relationships between two or more individual facts through the use of empirical generalization.
Scientific knowledge is explanatory because it answers “why” and “how” questions through a logically derived set of propositions about the relationship between two or more components. Causal relationships, more so than correlation, are especially important in establishing informative and useful explanations of political phenomena.
Science seeks to explain through the power of prediction by offering systematic, reasoned anticipation of future events, that once confirmed, provide evidence that the scientific knowledge responsible for generating the prediction is correct.
Most scientists accept probabilistic explanation—that 100-percent accuracy in prediction is not necessary to understand a phenomenon.
Science relies on parsimony, or simplicity and elegance, to choose between alternate explanations. The explanation that explains the most about a phenomenon with the fewest parameters will be preferred.
8. The contribution of K. Marx to the scientific tradition.
The first scientist who described politics in scientific turns was Karl Marx. He used his so called materialist conception of history. Marx developed a theory which is both scientific and critical. The theory of Marx has been playing such a revolutionary role throughout the historical epoch of human emancipation from alienated labor. It has been and still is the theoretical basis for every contemporary form of active and militant humanism.
The critical thought of Marx is the fullest and, historically, the most developed expression of human rationality. It contains, in a dialectically superseded form, the essence of ancient Greek theoria: a rational knowledge of the world’s structure, with which man can change the world and determine his own life. Hegel’s dialectical reasoning is already a creative negation of the Greek notion of ratio and theory, in which the contradictions between static, rational thinking and irrational dynamics, between positive assertion and abstract negation are superseded (aufgehoben). The theory and method of Marx is a decisive step further in the process of totalization and concretization of dialectical reasoning: it embraces not only change in general but also, in particular, the human, historical form of change: praxis. The dialectic of Marx raises the question of rationality, and not only the rationality of the individual, but also that of society as a whole, not only rationality within a given closed system, but also that of the system’s very limits, not only rationality of praxis as thinking but also of praxis as material activity, as a mode of real life, in space and time. There is dialectical reasoning in history only in the extent to which it creates a reasonable reality.
9. D. Easton about politics as the 'authoritative allocation of values'.
David Easton, another modern political scientist, defines "politics" as the authoritative allocation by the political system of values for society. Easton, in A Framework for Political Analysis, uses the term "political system" to designate the pattern or system of human inter- actions and relationships in any political society through which authoritative allocations are made and implemented--allocations that are binding on all members of the society and are recognized as such by the great majority of the members. Easton defines a society's political system as "those patterns of interaction through which values are allocated for a society and these allocations are accepted as authoritative by most persons in the society most of the time." Allocating society's values and obtaining widespread acceptance within the society of the authoritative, or binding, nature of the allocations, according to Easton, constitute the basic functions of any political society. By the word "value," Easton means any soughtafter value in life. A value is any object, activity, idea, principle, goal, or other phenomenon upon which large numbers of people place appreciable value, something which is considered by many individuals and groups within the political community to be good, desirable, attractive, useful, rewarding, beneficial, or advantageous. One set of values may be tangible, or material, in form--i.e., in the form of money, property, and/or other economic goods, services, and conditions. Another set of values may be intangible; that is, the values may be symbolic, ideological, cultural, ethical, moral, or religious in character. Examples of intangible values in contemporary American politics include the expressed goals of political activists who assert that they are concerned primarily with "social" or "family" issues, that they seek mainly to promote and defend "social" or "family" values.
10. Recent theoretical approach to politics, economic theory and procedural rules
Because political science is essentially a study of human behavior, in all aspects of politics, observations in controlled environments are often challenging to reproduce or duplicate, though experimental methods are increasingly common (see experimental political science). Citing this difficulty, former American Political Science Association President Lawrence Lowell once said "We are limited by the impossibility of experiment. Politics is an observational, not an experimental science." Because of this, political scientists have historically observed political elites, institutions, and individual or group behavior in order to identify patterns, draw generalizations, and build theories of politics.
Like all social sciences, political science faces the difficulty of observing human actors that can only be partially observed and who have the capacity for making conscious choices unlike other subjects such as non-human organisms in biology or inanimate objects as in physics. Despite the complexities, contemporary political science has progressed by adopting a variety of methods and theoretical approaches to understanding politics and methodological pluralism is a defining feature of contemporary political science. Often in contrast with national media, political science scholars seek to compile long-term data and research on the impact of political issues, producing in-depth articles breaking down the issues.
In 1955 Gary Stanley Becker wrote his doctoral dissertation at the University of Chicago on the economics of discrimination. Among other things, Becker successfully challenged the Marxist view that discrimination helps the person who discriminates. Becker pointed out that if an employer refuses to hire a productive worker simply because of skin color, that employer loses out on a valuable opportunity. In short, discrimination is costly to the person who discriminates.
Becker showed that discrimination will be less pervasive in more competitive industries because companies that discriminate will lose market share to companies that do not. He also presented evidence that discrimination is more pervasive in more-regulated, and therefore less-competitive, industries. The idea that discrimination is costly to the discriminator is common sense among economists today, and that is due to Becker.
Procedural elements of legal regulation are: 1) procedural rules; 2) procedural relations; 3) acts implementing the procedural rights and obligations. Procedural rules are normative basis of procedural regulation. There is a view expressed in jurisprudence that under the procedural rules of law should be understood established or authorized by state authority generally binding rules of conduct of a procedural nature, regulating public relations in the field of founding, law-making and enforcement activities of authorized bodies of the state, public organizations and officials.
Procedural rules are not a rarity in the substantive by nature legislation. Often courts take them as "special rules" – towards the standards laid down in the Code of Civil Procedure. It is believed that this approach has no legal basis. Procedural rules contained in the other, not procedural, legislation, are applicable insofar as it does not contradict to the Code of Civil Procedure and does not contain, for example, additional safeguards in a particular situation. If a form is aimed at limiting procedural guarantees of judicial protection established by the CPC, it should not be applicable to the application - due to the priority of CPC in the civil procedural regulation.
11. A concept as a general idea about something
A concept is a general idea or notion that corresponds to some class of entities and that consists of the characteristic or essential features of the class. A concept is a mental abstraction, which allows generalization and the extension of knowledge from some known objects to others unknown. It integrates two or more particulars into a common mental unit. For example, the concept "book" subsumes all particular books. It does so based on the essential characteristics of multiple pieces of paper or pages combined into a bound stack.
A concept is formed by taking a number of similar entities and deciding what makes them similar in an important way. Each concept serves a particular purpose and is created to allow higher-level thinking. People do not waste their time forming arbitrary concepts.
In any given moment, concepts enable man to hold in the focus of his conscious awareness much more than his purely perceptual capacity would permit. The range of man’s perceptual awareness—the number of percepts he can deal with at any one time — is limited. He may be able to visualize four or five units—as, for instance, five trees. He cannot visualize a hundred trees or a distance of ten light-years. It is only his conceptual faculty that makes it possible for him to deal with knowledge of that kind.
12. A model as a representation of something
A model is a systematic description of an object or phenomenon that shares important characteristics with the object or phenomenon. Scientific models can be material, visual, mathematical, or computational and are often used in the construction of scientific theories.
Models can perform two fundamentally different representational functions. On the one hand, a model can be a representation of a selected part of the world (the ‘target system’). Depending on the nature of the target, such models are either models of phenomena or models of data. On the other hand, a model can represent a theory in the sense that it interprets the laws and axioms of that theory. These two notions are not mutually exclusive as scientific models can be representations in both senses at the same time.
Many scientific models represent a phenomenon, where ‘phenomenon’ is used as an umbrella term covering all relatively stable and general features of the world that are interesting from a scientific point of view. Empiricists like van Fraassen (1980) only allow for observables to qualify as such, while realists like Bogen and Woodward (1988) do not impose any such restrictions. The billiard ball model of a gas, the Bohr model of the atom, the double helix model of DNA, the scale model of a bridge, the Mundell-Fleming model of an open economy, or the Lorenz model of the atmosphere are well-known examples for models of this kind.
13
Theories are used in all areas of political science. So no matter what kind of political science course you take, you will be
taking a course in theory. More generally, all social sciences and all sciences use theory. In fact, the whole process of
scientific research is about discovering, testing, and improving theories. The facts that we base on observation and accept as reality are important because of the implications they have for theories.
When you observe that your old friend at work who got a promotion and became a boss no longer acts friendly toward
you, you have observed a political fact that fits into a social science theory known as Michels' "Iron Law of Oligarchy." Your observation had scientific significance if you thought about it in more general terms. Of course, it also had personal
significance‑‑losing a friend is sad. But if you understand the theory, coping and not blaming yourself or your friend
becomes easier.Michels' law has a couple of implications. The first one is that leaders and followers will always exist. Moreover, most people are content to just simply follow. That gives an advantage to those who would like to lead, especially when a group is forming. All you have to do is speak up first and you are almost immediately seen as a leader. That is true at work and it is true in social settings as well. If you haven't noticed this in the simulations we play, you have been missing something. A small group of leaders‑‑an oligarchy‑‑develops pretty quickly
Political theory is a set of specified relationships involving political matters that focus and organize our inquiry in our
attempt to describe, explain, and predict political events and behaviors. The most powerful political theories accomplish all
three goals: describe, explain, and predict.As such theory is a systematic and general attempt to explain
something like;Why do people commit crimes?How do the media affect us?Each of these questions contains a reference
to some observed phenomenon.A suggested explanation for the observed phenomenon is theory.More formally,a theory is
a coherent set of general propositions,used as principles of explanations of the apparent relationship of certain observed
phenomena.The key element in this definition is the term proposition.
14)The framework of ideas and beliefs by which an individual interprets the world and interacts with it.Also it defines a paradigm as ''a word view underlying the theories and methodology of a particular scientific subject''.
Thomas Kuhn-the paradigms characterized the pecuilar logical model of organization and solving of cognitive problems
For Example:Theoretically politics thinks that in the future maybe in 2030 will be a 3 World War between Russia and USA.One of them always try to provoke situation,so one of them the aim of paradigm of conflict.
The words ''model''and ''pattern''goes well with the meanings of a a pradigm,even the word ''example''.
Around the country, the political groups which are being most effective in providing new solutions to social problems are based on a new political paradigm, a spiritual approach to politics:
Respecting the interconnection of all life
Thinking in whole systems
Searching for common ground and the good of the whole
Creating a higher synthesis out of adversarial positions
Matching rights with responsibilities
In my opinion a apradigm is a comprehensive model of understanding that provides a field's members with view points and rules on how to look at the field's problems and how to solve them.''Paradigms gain their status because they are more successful than their competitors in solving a few problems that the group of practritioners has come to recognize as acute''.
15GEOG PARADIGM
Explain the nature of politics by the influence of geographical factors.
Geopolotics traditionally studies the links between political power and geographic space,and examines strategic prescriptions based on the relative importance of land power and sea power in world history.Itexamines the political,economic and strategic significance of geography,where geography is defined in terms of the location size,function and relationships of places and resources.
For example political power has been influenced by the natural features(i.e. mountains,lakes,rivers,access to the ocean)affect the political power of countries that retain them.
Geopolitics is-the theory which studies the depends of concrete political actions of the state on geographical factors(F.E reasons and character of wars for exiting to seas or extension of therritories peculiarities of policy of neutrality of small states and so on)
Geographers are dividing themselves in the category of positivists, pragmatists, phenomenologists, existentialists, idealists, realists and dialectical materialists. This is a crisis phase with revolution which shall lead to new paradigm phase.
Originally a geopolitics task saw in the analysis of geographical influence on power relations in the worldwide policy connected with preserving of territorial integrity, the sovereignty and safety of the state. Subsequently representatives of geopolitics began to treat more widely relations of politically organised community and territorial space, trying to reveal the special logic of imperious interactions formed by the states (institutes) depending on fiziko-geographical factors (availability of overland or sea borders, extent of territories etc.).
16. Biological paradigm and geopolitics.
Biological paradigm includes conceptions which explain the nature of political life by biological science and use as proof of this data from biology, anatomy and the number of other natural sciences. From the point of view of biological policy obviously existence at the person and the animal general beginnings, properties, genetic adaptations to environment, such as altruism, ability to interaction, aggression, curiosity, natural selection, fight for existence, a self-preservation instinct, etc. Therefore, laws of the nature can be seen and in human society, in the political sphere. Still Aristotle said that the person is a political animal who has an instinct of a joint residence – from a family to the state.
Geopolitics. Ideas about influence of the geographical environment on policy were stated still by Aristotle and Platon. The founder of geopolitics Zh.Boden (XVI century) formulated the concept of influence of climate on behavior of people. Subsequently this concept was developed by Sh. Montesquieu in the composition "About spirit of laws" in which the basic principles of "the geopolitical direction" in policy are formulated. According to Montesquieu, the geographical environment, and first of all climate, define spirit of the people, a form of a state system and character of a social system. Montesquieu considered that the size of the territory influences a political system: the small state – the republic, big – a monarchy, huge – a despotism. In the XX century of idea of geopolitics professor of the Oxford university J. Makkinder developed. Its work "A geographical axis of history" (1904) formed the basis of geopolitical concepts of the XX century. From the point of view of Makkinder, the geographical determinism, "placement" of political forces in the concrete geographical environment is essential for the modern geopolitical analysis and practical foreign policy. Makkinder proceeded from the postulate subsequently claimed in geopolitics that the states which don't have an outlet to the sea significantly lag behind in development. It came to division of power of the countries on overland and sea. Today the accounting of geopolitical factors is a necessary element when forming a political policy of any state.
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