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Existing for thousands of years, the state is changed with the development of the whole society, of which it is. In terms of features between the state and the individual, the embodiment of rationality in the polity, the principles of freedom and human rights in the development of the state, there are two global stage: the traditional and constitutional, as well as intermediate steps, intricately combine features of traditional and constitutional states, such as totalitarian state.
Traditional state emerged and existed mainly spontaneously, on the basis of customs and norms rooted in antiquity. They were not institutionally limited authority over his subjects, denied the equality of all people, did not recognize the person as a source of state power. A typical embodiment of such a state were Anarchy.
Some authors, taking into account the profound differences between constitutional and unconstitutional states offer in accordance with ancient tradition, distinguishing state and despotism, to name only the state "organization of public authorities, the derivative of the civil society and somehow controlled by him." Although such an interpretation ignores the different types of state and is not shared by the majority of scientists it rightly points to the fundamental boundary that separates the modern constitutional state from the states according to the type of its structure and functioning associated with the past.
Constitutional state is the object of conscious human formation, management and regulation. It does not seek to cover their regulatory impact all manifestations of human life - its economic, cultural, religious and political activity, and limited to performing the functions delegated by the citizens and do not violate the freedom of the individual.
In general, the constitutional stage in the development of the state is related to his subordinates society and citizens, with legal authority and outlined the scope of government intervention, the legal regulation of the activities of the state and the creation of institutional and other human rights guarantees. In short, it is associated with the emergence of the constitution.
75. political socialization, its essence, stages and types.
Political socialisation is a process of mastering of cultural values, political orientations, development of forms of the political behaviour acceptable for the given society. As a result of process of political socialisation individuals and groups join certain political culture that, in turn, promotes provision and maintenance of stability of political system. The maintenance of political socialisation is familiarising of the person with rates and traditions of certain political system, forming of skills of political participation, informing on the purposes and methods of a conducted policy.
Political socialisation carries out a number of the major functions: 1) determines political ends and the individual through political participation wants to comprehend values to which aspires also which; 2) forms representations about acceptable methods of political behaviour, about relevance of those or other actions in a concrete situation; 3) determines the relation of the individual to environment and political system; 4) develops the certain relation to political symbolics; 5) forms capabilities to world around knowledge; 6) forms belief and the relations which are "code" of political life.
Various types of political socialisation are allocated: direct and indirect (primary and secondary). Direct socialisation - this direct acquisition of political knowledge and installations. Indirect socialisation is some kind of "projection" of character traits, early children's experience, a direct environment of the person to formed political installations. So, for example, installations of the child in relation to the father, lives formed in the early periods, can be transformed further to the relation to political objects (to the president, parliament, court, a batch, etc.).
Political socialisation of the person is performed in some stages.
On the first of them - a politicisation stage - at children under the influence of estimations of parents, their relations and reactions the first representations about the policy world are formed.
The second stage - personification. During this period the perception of the power is personified. Figures of the president, the prime minister or the policeman become samples of the power, for example.
At the third stage - an idealisation stage - to the major political figures certain qualities are attributed and on this basis steady emotional relations to political system are formed.
The fourth stage which has received the name institutional, is characterised by transition from the personified perception of a policy to more abstract. At this stage representations about power institutes are pledged.
Studying of features of political thinking at children has allowed to allocate non-uniformity of political development of the person. So, with 11 till 13 years there is a prompt development of political representations, during the period with 16 till 18 years this process is considerably slowed down. The thinking of 15-year-old teenagers differs considerably bolshej degree of abstractions (such concepts, as "power" are used, "freedom", "human rights"), rather than thinking of 11-year-old children (had especially personified character). During the teenage period representations about some collective, nadyndividualnyh the purposes of actions of separate political institutes start to develop. During the boyish period of life world outlook principles of the person are pledged. Scepticism, care, sobriety of estimations concern the most widespread lines of political thinking (see: SHestopal E.B. The person and a policy. M, 1988. With. 124).
The generated in children's and youthful years political preferences and installations are the steadiest. Socialisation proceeding during all life does not render some serious influence on transformation of the base values died during the early periods. Process of radical change of the values, the generated political culture (received the name resotsializatsii) is rather painful and can be accompanied by sharp intrapersonal conflicts and even destruction of structure of the person.
In each political system socialisation process has the features. So, for example, in the USA the branched out system of political socialisation is created. Socialisation process begins with the earliest years of life. During this period on forming of representations of the child influence is rendered by a family. The family acquaints the child with moral, social, religious and political values. In a family primary political knowledge, reactions and the preferences rendering then during all life appreciable influence on outlook of the person are formed. And, as show researches, a family role in political socialisation of the individual in the USA much more, rather than, say, in the Western Europe. Fathers render on formed political views of children a greater influence, than mothers. However, in case of a discrepancy of political predilections of parents, children take of a position of mother is more often.
Examples: (для себя,для привидения примеров)
In the Western Europe problems of political socialisation with all sharpness have risen in the countries passing from totalitarianism and authoritarianism to democracy. So, in post-war Germany arising democracy long time remained rather astable in force neukorenennosti in mass consciousness of democratic values. The American occupying authorities disturbed by possibility of restoration of an authoritative mode, have undertaken unprecedented experiment on modernisation of system of values of Germans. The special program which provided average and higher education reform (dismissal of a considerable part of teachers, retraining remained, release of new education guidances, etc.) has been with that end in view developed And also a popular edition of the literature propagandising democratic values. However sociological polls conducted through some years have shown low productivity of the undertaken measures on "perekovke" German political culture. Shifts in political culture of the western Germans towards democratic orientations were designated only in the late sixties - the beginning of 70th the Economic crisis the middle 70, one of the heaviest in the history of Germany, could not undermine legitimacy of social and political system that testified to consolidation of representations about democracy in the West German political culture. In modern Germany powerful and effective enough system of political socialisation continues to act.
In Spain socialisation crisis has arisen after falling frankistskogo a mode. Because of the political apathy vague representations about a state system had the majority of Spaniards, were not interested in a policy and at all did not discuss political events, there was no elementary culture of reading of newspapers. A family and contemporaries owing to the political apathy could not represent itself as socialisation agencies. Overcoming of a similar heritage the same as and in Germany, it has appeared difficult and long.
In modern Russia when as a result of change of a political Mode the former system of values has appeared discredited, and new values did not become dominating in mass consciousness, before a society there are complicated questions: what purposes political socialisation should pursue? What values can become object of a consensus of various social groups? What of them can replace the discredited former?
Other serious problem of political socialisation in Russia is absence of continuity in transfer of experience of political participation and behaviour. Old models of political behaviour and the participations mastered by the senior generation, frequently do not answer new political realities and are capable to disorient the person only. New models are formed and accustom slowly enough. For this reason last years the problem of political formation became actual: acquaintance and development of political experience of other countries, studying of features of functioning of political systems, influence methods on them and realisations of own and group interests, adaptations of foreign experience to the Russian traditions. However forming of new political socialisation is not reduced only to system of humanitarian and political formation. Forming of new institutes of socialisation which would fill the formed vacuum after destruction and disappearance of the old is necessary.
76. Main institutions of the political socialization.
Political socialization is a life long process and a variety of individuals and institutions contribute to its shaping effect. For example, individuals are politically socialized by such groups as their family, peers, and social class. Furthermore, they are socialized by existing laws, media, religion, education, their own gender, and more. Basically, the process is never ending and the factors which shape it are all encompassing.
Those groups and institutions which contribute to the process of political socialization are known as the agents of socialization. These sources affect the development of political values and attitudes differently, but they all contribute to the individual's understanding of and orientations toward politics. The primary agents of socialization are those that directly develop specific political orientations such as the family. Whereas, the secondary agents of socialization tend to be less personal and involved in the process of socialization in a more indirect manner such as the media.
Basic political attitudes and values tend to be formed early in childhood and tend to be relatively consistent throughout life. Thus, the family is a very important agent of political socialization. However, the degree to which these basic political orientations are retained by the individual varies as a result of the discontinuities one experiences in their political socialization. Hence, this is where the other agents of political socialization become fundamental factors in one's political development.
77) The processes of disintegration and integration in world politics, their sources and roots
Integration - consolidation, amalgamation of political, economic, governmental and public organizations within the region, countries of the world.
Disintegration - the destruction of the economic structure of society (state, region).
As already indicated, the weaker(слабее) forms of international political integration refer to cooperation between states and formations of state-based regimes. The deeper forms of integration refer to the constitution of new political entities, which have a certain degree of independence in regard (внимание) to the individual states.
Thus, political integration involves the strengthening (укрепление) of a political system, in particular the scope and capacity of its decision-making process. Besides this institutional aspect of integration, there is as well the normative dimension of creating a political community.
Legal integration is closely related to political integration and involves the establishment of common legal rules and a common legal system for the citizens of the different states of a region.
Sometimes political integration is interpreted as the creation of supranational institutions. However, as already indicated, supranational institutions cannot be considered as the condition par excellence to achieve an increased coherence(согласованность). Treaties might well stipulate a certain degree of sovereignty transfer, however the actual practice might sometimes diverge(расходиться) considerably from the stipulations(оговорки) of the treaty.
An example of Political Integration: 1) Organisation of African Unity, 2) NEPAD
1)An example of a mainly politically inspired integration project is the creation in 1963 of the Organisation of African Unity. Its primary goal was to promote unity and solidarity among African countries. Other objectives included improving the general living standards in Africa, defending the territorial integrity and independence of African states, and promoting international co-operation.
The organisation was established against the backdrop of decolonisation, while there were still a number of countries under colonial rule. The key concern of the organisation was to free the African continent of the colonial yoke. Thus, the emphasis of the Organisation of African Unity was rather on political than on economic issues. The Ghanaian president and founding father of the OAU, Kwame Nkrumah was convinced that the problems of Africa's economic development could only be solved when the continent was totally liberated and when the African states were politically united in a socialist directed All-African Union Government. Thus, political solutions had to be found before economic issues could be solved. He stated in 1963 that: "African Unity is a political kingdom, which can be achieved by political means. The social and economic development of Africa will come only within the political kingdom, and not the other way around." Already at that time he envisioned the creation of an African Parliament to shore up the process of continental integration. However, the reluctance of the member states to yield some degree of sovereignty in policy making for collective interests hampered the institutional development of the organisation. The development of the African integration was merely ad hoc and summit driven, which resulted in promising declarations but without a concomitant follow-up or implementation. This is not to say that the OAU has failed on every level, the organisation was quite successful in formulating and coordinating policies towards extra African actors and jointly engaging in the combat against colonial and racial discrimination, but in what concerns the economic and developmental issues the OAU proved incapable to deliver.
Recently, there is a wind of change blowing through the OAU. In March 2002, the African leaders agreed on the creation of an African Union, replacing the OAU with a new pan-African body. The new body, loosely modelled on the European Union, includes in the union plan a pan-African parliament, an executive council, a court of justice and a central bank. How the African union will operate in practice is not yet very clear.
In the meantime, there are several regional integration schemes already operating in various parts of the African continent, notably among West African states and also in Southern Africa. Interest in regional integration is growing all across the African continent, and regional cooperation is also being encouraged by international organisations, such as the World Bank, as well as the European Union. The EU partnersip agreement with the African, Carribean and Pacific states, known as the Cotonon Agreement, makes explicit reference to the support of regional integration schemes.
2)African leaders have acted upon the dialogue that emerged in the wake of the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD). NEPAD sets out a vision for the development of the continent based on the promotion of peace and security, economic growth and rising prosperity. In essence, NEPAD is a framework for collaboration and coordination within the African Union, representing therefore both a starting point for cooperation and a signpost for future regional integration. National leaders have yet to put the vision into action, and to mobilise domestic resources for the provision of adequate, physical and technical infrastructure, the development of education and training, and the encouragement of financial capital for long-term investment.
Example to disintegration: Disintegration of the USSR created new problems for the " independent " states.
78. Nationalism is a belief, creed or political ideology that involves an individual identifying with, or becoming attached to, one's nation
Nationalism is a phenomenon that can bare both positive and negative attributes. It is of great importance in creating a sense of individual identity as well as unity between people who share the same nationalistic views. It can create a harmony between strangers on the foundation of similarities of culture, language, religion, and historical accomplishments. It creates sympathy amongst its members, while motivating the advancement of interests that each nationality holds. Nonetheless, nationalism can carry an underlying consequence of segregation between different nationalities. The negative attributions of nationalism can cause weak justifications for war, racism, territorial conflicts and ignorance towards other nations. It can fuel ethnocentric behaviour, and deteriorate universal empathy and compassion for people who are different than us.
I think that the society must provide an environment that is accepting and tolerant while providing refuge from persecution and discrimination for all of its citizens. In regards to nationalism, the ideal society must find a way to respect individual nationalism, while not forcing the people to either get rid of their nationalism or be conformed into one general nationalistic view.
As I write before there are two types of nationalism:positive and negative
For example:
Due to the nature of nationalism, conflict is inevitable, particularly when it comes to nationalism as a political movement. Within the bounds of a nation there are people who are insiders and those who are outsiders. The way in which a nation portrays "the other" is crucial in determining whether the nationalism is positive or negative. Nazi Germany and the outcomes of Hitler’s campaign against the Jews during World War II is an example of the dangers of nationalism. The Indian rebellion against colonial rule by the British and subsequent independence is an example of positive nationalism.
In my personal opinion nationalism is a process of formation of a nation as it is a sense of belonging to the nation. In addition, it is often a social and political movement as well as a doctrine or creed. I believe that we can all agree that an ideal society is one that protects its people’s individual free will, while maintaining a safe environment for the people as a group. This free will must be free from constraints, equal to all while still protecting the individual differences
79.A multinational state is a sovereign state which is viewed as comprising two or more nations. Such a state contrasts with a nation-state where a single nation comprises the bulk of the population. The United Kingdom, the Russian Federation, India, South Africa and Canada are viewed as present-day examples of multinational states, while Austria-Hungary, USSR and Yugoslavia are examples of historical multinational states which have since split into a number of sovereign states.
Depending on the definitions of such terms as "nation" a multinational state may or may not be multicultural
Kazakhstan nowadays is also a multinational country.
The principle of equality of all ethnic groups that inhabit our country is strictly adhered by. All conditions for a full national self-expression have been created as well as the rights for the fulfilment of their ethno cultural interests are ensured. Legal guarantees and respectful treatment of all the languages used in the republic defend the integral right of citizens of any nationality to develop their language and culture. Figures witness the balance and harmony of the national policy: about 40% of secondary schools use Russian language in teaching. The higher education for 70% is available in Russian language. In areas of residence of compact ethnic groups schools function with Uyghur, Uzbek, Tajik, Ukrainian, German, Polish and other languages of teaching.
Ethnic Policy (ethnopolitics) - is the sphere of social and political relations and ethnic communities and ethnic groups together. The main goal of ethno-policy is to regulate inter-ethnic relations and achieving national unity in society. Ethnopolitics actors perform ethnic groups, nations, ethnic (national) minorities, indigenous peoples, political parties, national-cultural societies, ethnic leaders.
Conflict of interest between the subjects of ethnic policy issues happening around the distribution of political power, economic and social benefits, preserving ethnic and cultural identity. So, the real content of ethnic policy is the so-called "politicization of ethnicity", that is in the active socio-cultural and socio-political activities of ethnic groups.
Depending on the mode of interaction of subjects of ethnic policy formed the so-called ethno-political model. It is defined as the schematic design, which outlines the best option relations between the state and ethnic communities. American political scientist George. Rotishld identified three basic models of ethnic policy: vertical hierarchical, "parallel ethnic segmentation" and "crossed the grid."
Vertical-hierarchical model of ethno-national policy represented by one dominant ethnic group in the country, which occupies a dominant position in the political, economic and cultural spheres of society. Other groups have to actually obey the same ethnic group. Such a model functioned in South Africa (Boers), in the USSR (Russian), of modern India (Hindi).
Model "parallel ethnic segmentation" is represented in countries where each ethnic group stratified inside by economic criteria and has its own political elite, which represents its interests. This model is presented in Belgium (the Flemish and the Walloons), Great Britain (English, Scottish, Welsh, Irish). Gradually, this model is formed in the modern Russian Federation.
Ethno-political model "crossed grid" is the best in terms of balancing ethnic interests in a multi-ethnic society. In this model, economic and ethnic elements are interwoven. Social classes absorb different ethnic groups. This model avoids the intergroup hostility on the basis of national humiliation or ethnic division of labor, power and prestige in the society. This model seeks to implement the United States, France, Italy, Germany, Ukraine, Kazakhstan.
81. Nations as cultural and political communities.
Nation – group of people, who speak the same language, have the same religion, are bound by a shared position and so on.
Such factors shape the politics of nationalism. Example: Kyrgyzstan.
Varieties of nationalism:
liberal nationalism
conservative nat-m
expansionist nationalism
anti – colonial nationalism
External threats to the national state have a variety of forms:
1. Advances in the technology of warefair and especially the advent of the new age have about the demands that world be pleased by supernational and international bodies.
2. Economic lite has been progressively globalised.
3. The nation state maybe the enemy of the natural environment and threat to the national ecological balance.
4. Distinctive national culture and tradition the source of concision which distinguished nation's state from other political organisms have been worked by the emergence of a transnational and even global culture.
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