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Giving among knowledge a priority of political philosophy and ethics as thanks to them achievement of original happiness is possible, restriction of the last with imaginary, false happiness, Farabi opposes the virtuous city to the ignorant and stray city, originally virtuous person to the one who lives low values and vegetates in lie, slander and arrogance. His reasonings on a way fortunately and worthy the person of life, about human nature, about intellectual and ethical perfection, about an ideal of the governor, developed in "The statesman's aphorisms", "Civil policy", in the composition "About achievement of happiness" still demand deeper studying. Freedom of spirit in the statement of inherent human values penetrating creativity of Farabi is extremely instructive and actual. The happiness is the absolute benefit. Is available, tells Farabi, a set of things about which the person believes that they also are a basis and the purpose of life. Most often this pleasant, useful, money, glory and so forth. But to realize that such happiness, to make it the purpose and steadily it is impossible to go to it without improvement of reasonable theoretical part of soul. Capable to they are wise men. Most of people gives in in representation of happiness to images of imagination. Religions it just are also various ways of representation of happiness in images of imagination though all people and all people believe in the same happiness.
(Отдавая среди знаний приоритет политической философии и этике, поскольку благодаря им возможно достижение подлинного счастья, ограничение последнего от мнимого, ложного счастья, Фараби противопоставляет добродетельный город невежественному и заблудшему городу, подлинно добродетельного человека тому, кто живет низкими ценностями и прозябает в лжи, клевете и высокомерии. Его рассуждения о пути к счастью и достойной человека жизни, о природе человека, об интеллектуальном и этическом совершенстве, об идеале правителя, развиваемые в "Афоризмах государственного деятеля", "Гражданской политике", в сочинении "О достижении счастья" еще требуют более глубокого изучения. Свобода духа в утверждении непреходящих человеческих ценностей, пронизывающая творчество Фараби, чрезвычайно поучительна и актуальна. Счастье это - абсолютное благо. Имеется, говорит Фараби, множество вещей, о которых человек полагает, что они-то и являются основой и целью жизни. Чаще всего это приятное, полезное, деньги, слава и тому подобное. Но осознать, что такое счастье, сделать его целью и неуклонно идти к нему невозможно без совершенствования разумной теоретической части души. Способные к этому - мудрецы. Большинство же людей поддается в представлении счастья образам воображения. Религии это как раз и есть различные способы представления счастья в образах воображения, хотя все народы и все люди верят в одно и то же счастье.)
24) Al-Beruni about cyclic recurrence of the development of the world.
In the Middle Ages, as it was believed that only polar interaction of objects leads to the progressive movement and the development of society. In this regard, A. Biruni referred to the fact that changes in general and the various phenomena can be explained by none other than as a struggle "between action and reaction between aspirations and resistance." This is what, in his opinion, leads to the fact that survive, develop and improve the most powerful and fitted, there is a revival of production and progress of all the events in the life.
He thought it possible that the earth revolved around the sun. He developed the idea that geological eras succeed one another in cycles. "With the passing of time, the sea becomes dry land, and dry land the sea," he wrote, and on this brilliant hypothesis he based his theory of the earth's geological history.
For al Biruni time has acyclic nature, but not in the sense of returning to the same point again, which is a metaphysical absurdity and a modern caricature of the real traditional teachings. Rather, by "cyclic" al-Biruni understands qualitative changes and correspondences between various elements of time within each cycle.
Al-Blruni was fully aware of the long history of the earth, of the cataclysms which changed mountains into seas and oceans into continents, of the fact that certain species preceded others on earth and that each species has its own life cycle. Pondering over the vast panorama of nature. In both time and space and the teachings of various sacred writings on the creation and subsequent history of the
Universe, Al-Biruni became aware of the basic principle that the development and becoming of things in this world is the gradual unfolding and actualization of all the possibilities that are inherent within each being. Nothing evolves from one form into another as a result of external additions or accretions; rather whatever transformation take place is no more than the manifestations of possibilities already present in that being. In the same way, what becomes manifested at a particular period of history is no more than the unfolding of possibilities inherent in that particular cycle of time.
25. Al-Biruni about possibility of over-population in society.
Abu Raihan Mohammed Ibn Ahmad Al-Biruni. Born about five centuries before the Renaissance, he proved to be one of the best scientists of all times. At an early age his fame of scholarship went around and when Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi conquered Ural, Al-Biruni’s homeland, he took Al-Biruni along with him on his journeys to India several times and so he had the chance to travel all over India for a period of 20 years. Al-Biruni learned Hindu philosophy, mathematics, geography and religion from the Pandits to whom he taught Greek and Arabic science and philosophy. He wrote about his travels through India in his well-known book Kitab-al-hind which gives a graphic account of the sub-continent.
In another book, Al-Athar Al-Baqia, he attempted a connected account of the ancient history of nations and the related geographical knowledge, discussed the rotation of the earth and gave correct values of latitudes and longitudes of various places. He has also made many contributions to several topics of physical and economic geography in this book. At that time people believed in the geocentric theory of the universe, that is they believed that the earth was in the center of the universe and the planets, stars, and sun revolved around it. He said at the root of overpopulation is the difference between the overall birth rate and death rate in populations. If the number of children born each year equals the number of adults that die, then the population will stabilize. Talking about overpopulation shows that while there are many factors that can increase the death rate for short periods of time, the ones that increase the birth rate do so over a long period of time. The discovery of agriculture by our ancestors was one factor that provided them with the ability to sustain their nutrition without hunting. This created the first imbalance between the two rates.
26. Avicienna about natural inequality of people.
Avicenna created an extensive corpus of works during what is commonly known as the Islamic Golden Age, in which the translations of Greco-Roman, Persian, and Indian texts were studied extensively. Greco-Roman (Mid- and Neo-Platonic, and Aristotelian) texts by the Kindi school were commented, redacted and developed substantially by Islamic intellectuals, who also built upon Persian and Indian mathematical systems, astronomy, algebra, trigonometry and medicine.[17] The Samanid dynasty in the eastern part ofPersia, Greater Khorasan and Central Asia as well as the Buyid dynasty in the western part of Persia and Iraq provided a thriving atmosphere for scholarly and cultural development. Under the Samanids, Bukhara rivaled Baghdad as a cultural capital of the Islamic world.[18]
The study of the Quran and the Hadith thrived in such a scholarly atmosphere. Philosophy, Fiqh and theology (kalaam) were further developed, most noticeably by Avicenna and his opponents. Al-Razi and Al-Farabi had provided methodology and knowledge in medicine and philosophy. Avicenna had access to the great libraries of Balkh, Khwarezm,Gorgan, Rey, Isfahan and Hamadan. Various texts (such as the 'Ahd with Bahmanyar) show that he debated philosophical points with the greatest scholars of the time. Aruzi Samarqandi describes how before Avicenna left Khwarezm he had met Rayhan Biruni (a famous scientist and astronomer), Abu Nasr Iraqi (a renowned mathematician), Abu Sahl Masihi (a respected philosopher) and Abu al-Khayr Khammar (a great physician).He had lots of works about people’s inequality. He always saw poor people surrounding, when he was in a rich countries. “Oh, people don’t even know,” he said, “If poor people knew how rich rich people are,” he continued, “there would be riots in the streets.”
27. Averroes about religion and knowledge in an ideal state.
It is significant that Averroës could say in his Commentary on Plato’s Republic that religious law and philosophy have the same aim and in the Faṣl that “philosophy is the companion and foster-sister of the Sharīʿah.” Accepting Aristotle’s division of philosophy into theoretical (physics andmetaphysics) and practical (ethics and politics), he finds that the Sharīʿah teaches both to perfection: abstract knowledge commanded as the perception of God, and practice—the ethical virtues the law enjoins (Commentary on Plato’s Republic). In the Tahāfut he maintains that “the religious laws conform to the truth and impart a knowledge of those actions by which the happiness of the whole creation is guaranteed.” There is no reason to question the sincerity of Averroës. These statements reflect the same attitude to law and the same emphasis on happiness. Happiness as the highest good is the aim of political science. As a Muslim, Averroës insists on the attainment of happiness in this and the next life by all believers. This is, however, qualified by Averroës as the disciple of Plato: the highest intellectual perfection is reserved for the metaphysician, as in Plato’s ideal state. But the Muslim’s ideal state provides for the happiness of the masses as well because of its prophetically revealed law, which is superior to the Greek nomos (law) for this reason. The philosopher Averroës distinguishes between degrees of happiness and assigns every believer the happiness that corresponds to his intellectual capacity. He takes Plato to task for his neglect of the third estate because Averroës believes that everyone is entitled to his share of happiness. Only the Sharīʿah of Islam cares for all believers. It legitimates speculation because it demands that the believer should know God. This knowledge is accessible to the naive believer in metaphors, the inner meaning of which is intelligible only to the metaphysician with the help of demonstration. On this point all falāsifah are agreed, and all recognize the excellence of the Sharīʿah stemming from its divinely revealed character. But only Averroës insists on its superiority over the nomos.
Insisting on the prerogative of the metaphysician—understood as a duty laid upon him by God—to interpret the doctrines of religion in the form of right beliefs and convictions (like Plato’s philosopher-king), Averroës admits that the Sharīʿah contains teachings that surpass human understanding but that must be accepted by all believers because they contain divinely revealed truths. The philosopher is definitely bound by the religious law just as much as the masses and the theologians, who occupy a position somewhere in between. In his search for truth the metaphysician is bound by Arabic usage, as is the jurist in his legal interpretations, though the jurist uses subjective reasoning only, in contrast to the metaphysician’s certain proof. This means that the philosopher is not bound to accept what is contradicted by demonstration. He can, thus, abandon belief in the creation out of nothing since Aristotle demonstrated the eternity of matter. Hence creation is a continuing process. Averroës sought justification for such an attitude in the fact that a Muslim is bound only by consensus (ijmāʿ) of the learned in a strictly legal context where actual laws and regulations are concerned. Yet, since there is no consensus on certain theoretical statements, such as creation, he is not bound to conform. Similarly, anthropomorphism is unacceptable, and metaphorical interpretation of those passages in Scripture that describe God in bodily terms is necessary. And the question whether God knows only the universals, but not the particulars, is neatly parried by Averroës in his statement that God has knowledge of particulars but that his knowledge is different from human knowledge. These few examples suffice to indicate that ambiguities and inconsistencies are not absent in Averroës’ statements.
The Commentary on Plato’s Republic reveals a side of Averroës that is not to be found in his other commentaries. While he carried on a long tradition of attempted synthesis between religious law and Greek philosophy, he went beyond his predecessors in spite of large-scale dependence upon them. He made Plato’s political philosophy, modified by Aristotle, his own and considered it valid for the Islamic state as well. Consequently, he applied Platonic ideas to the contemporary Almoravid and Almohad states in a sustained critique in Platonic terms, convinced that if the philosopher cannot rule, he must try to influence policy in the direction of the ideal state. For Plato’s ideal state is the best after the ideal state of Islam based on and centred in the Sharīʿah as the ideal constitution. Thus, he regrets the position of women in Islam compared with their civic equality in Plato’s Republic. That women are used only for childbearing and the rearing of offspring is detrimental to the economy and responsible for the poverty of the state. This is most unorthodox.
Of greater importance is his acceptance of Plato’s idea of the transformation and deterioration of the ideal, perfect state into the four imperfect states. Muʿāwiyah I, who in Muslim tradition perverted the ideal state of the first four caliphs into a dynastic power state, is viewed by Averroës in the Platonic sense as having turned the ideal state into a timocracy—a government based on love of honour. Similarly, the Almoravid and Almohad states are shown to have deteriorated from a state that resembled the original perfect Sharīʿah state into timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny. Averroës here combines Islamic notions with Platonic concepts. In the same vein he likens the false philosophers of his time, and especially the mutakallimūn, to Plato’s sophists. In declaring them a real danger to the purity of Islam and to the security of the state, he appeals to the ruling power to forbid dialectical theologians to explain their beliefs and convictions to the masses, thus confusing them and causing heresy, schism, and unbelief. The study of The Republic and the Nicomachean Ethics enabled the falāsifah to see more clearly the political character and content of the Sharīʿah in the context of the classical Muslim theory of the religious and political unity of Islam.
Leaning heavily on the treatment of Plato’s political philosophy by al-Fārābī, a 10th-century philosopher, Averroës looks at The Republic with the eyes of Aristotle, whose Nicomachean Ethics constitutes for Averroës the first, theoretical part of political science. He is, therefore, only interested in Plato’s theoretical statements. Thus he concentrates on a detailed commentary on Books II–IX of The Republic and ignores Plato’s dialectical statements and especially his tales and myths, principally the myth of Er. He explains Plato, whose Laws and Politikos he also knows and uses, with the help, and in the light, of Aristotle’s Analytica posteriora, De anima, Physica, and Nicomachean Ethics. Naturally, Greek pagan ideas and institutions are replaced by Islamic ones. Thus Plato’s criticism of poetry (Homer) is applied to Arab pre-Islamic poetry, which he condemns.
Averroës sees much common ground between the Sharīʿah and Plato’s general laws (interpreted with the help of Aristotle), notwithstanding his conviction that the Sharīʿah is superior to the nomos. He accepts al-Fārābī’s equation of Plato’s philosopher-king with the Islamic imam, or leader and lawgiver, but leaves it open whether the ideal ruler must also be a prophet. The reason for this may well be that, as a sincere Muslim, Averroës holds that Muḥammad was “the seal of the prophets” who promulgated the divinely revealed Sharīʿah once and for all. Moreover, Averroës exempts Muḥammad from the general run of prophets, thus clearly rejecting the psychological explanation of prophecy through the theory of emanation adopted by the other falāsifah. No trace of this theory can be discovered in Averroës’ writings, just as his theory of the intellect is strictly and purely Aristotelian and free from the theory of emanation. In conclusion, it may be reiterated that the unity of outlook in Averroës’ religious-philosophical writings and his commentary on The Republic gives his political philosophy a distinctly Islamic character and tone, thereby adding to his significance as a religious philosopher.
28.Shokhan Valikhanov is known as a supporter of democracy. He proved that the political system of the country is in scandalous contradiction. Also he characterized a social organization of Central Asia as a pathologic crisis of a development as a result of people’s wildness and ignorance. Sh.Valikhanov sharply condemned "educational" tsarist policy, demanded normal growth and development of the people, freedom and knowledge. He devoted all his life to the development of science, education and literature in his native land.
29.Ybyrai Altynasarin was a supporter of people’s self-administration and democracy. He also refused the ideas of socialism. He continued humanistic tradition of his predecessors, was a propagandist of Russian-Kazakh friendship. Also Altynsarin considered that only a secular education could ensure the economic and moral people’s development.
30.Abay Qunanbayev supported the uniting of all neighbour nations on the principles of justice and equality. He considered that for a hungry man is hardly able to remain sensible and honest, let alone strive for knowledge. To feel the need for knowledge and culture one should be free from daily concern about bread for instance. He was sure that spiritual interaction joins people, both big and small. All people are friends. Abay thought justice after in an unreal world, supposed that education can lead the human kind towards morality.
28.Shokhan Valikhanov is known as a supporter of democracy. He proved that the political system of the country is in scandalous contradiction. Also he characterized a social organization of Central Asia as a pathologic crisis of a development as a result of people’s wildness and ignorance. Sh.Valikhanov sharply condemned "educational" tsarist policy, demanded normal growth and development of the people, freedom and knowledge. He devoted all his life to the development of science, education and literature in his native land.
29.Ybyrai Altynasarin was a supporter of people’s self-administration and democracy. He also refused the ideas of socialism. He continued humanistic tradition of his predecessors, was a propagandist of Russian-Kazakh friendship. Also Altynsarin considered that only a secular education could ensure the economic and moral people’s development.
30.Abay Qunanbayev supported the uniting of all neighbour nations on the principles of justice and equality. He considered that for a hungry man is hardly able to remain sensible and honest, let alone strive for knowledge. To feel the need for knowledge and culture one should be free from daily concern about bread for instance. He was sure that spiritual interaction joins people, both big and small. All people are friends. Abay thought justice after in an unreal world, supposed that education can lead the human kind towards morality.
31. In ancient times a great importance was attached to the customs and traditions, holidays. One of them is Nauryz. According to folk custom, this time of joy and fun associated with the awakening of nature and the beginning of a new stage in the life of every human being. Nauryz is described in many literary works and scientific works of geniuses of the medieval East as a symbol of renewal, purification, the coming of spring, of new life, love and beauty. Outstanding Kazakh scientists and writers in their works devoted many lines to this beautiful holiday. One of them was M. Dulatov. Dulatov is a great poet, writer, essayist, educator, teacher, entered together with A. Bukeykhanov and A.Baitursynov in the top three, which meant a milestone of revival of national consciousness of the Kazakhs in the 20th century. Our ancestors didn’t allow the Shariat to oust the ancient customs and traditions from life of the people, which were a kind of code of the laws for nomads. Therefore, Nauryz, for example, preserved in its original purity and was not a religious holiday. As a national holiday it was celebrated until 1926. The same was written and by Myrzhakyp Dulatov: "... Nauryz is indeed a national holiday of Kazakhs. Apart from Kazakhs many Eastern peoples also celebrate Nauryz. But Kazakhs compared to them in a special capaciously and reasonably perceived value of Nauryz ".
32. M.Dulatov is one of the most famous representatives of the Kazakh culture and literature, poet, writer, one of the leaders of the government "Alash Orda" and the national liberation movement of Kazakhstan. Life and Works of M. Dulatov closely related with the party "Alash" and the government "Alash Orda". M. Dulatov was widely known among the people. People listen to his opinion. M. Dulatov believed that Russia should be a democratic republic. He explained meaning of democracy as belonging power to the people in the state. He suggested such a system of supreme bodies of the state: the bicameral structure of the supreme representative body - the Constituent Assembly and the State Duma. Legislative power is concentrated in the hands only of the State Duma, which owns the right of control over the government. Tsarist decree of the 3rd of July in 1907, Kazakhs, like all the indigenous peoples of Siberia and Central Asia, were deprived of the right to participate in the State Duma of Russia. In his article, "The Law of the 3rd of July and the Kazakhs' ” Dulatov has criticized the decision as unfair. He believes if deputies from the Kazakhs will not participate in solving the Kazakh questions, no matter how erudite and eloquent deputies who speak in these cases, any competent solutions can not be. In his opinion, the president should be elected by both chambers. Ministers would be responsible to the Chambers. He also suggested the democratic electoral system. Elections of deputies had to be universal, equal, direct, secret ballot. Everybody has the right to elect and be elected, without exception, despite the origin, religion and gender.
33. Mirzhakyp Dulatov is one of the major representatives of the Kazakh culture and literature in the early 20th century, poet, writer and public figure, one of the leaders of Alash Orda. In addition to issues of social order, M.Dulatov raised the problem of language, freedom of choice. He considered that main needs of the Kazakhs is the freedom to use their native language, he joined the suggestion of those comrades who asked the Congress to speak for the immediate abolition of all restrictions on the rights of local languages. In 1928 M. Dulatov lashed out against the abolition of the Arabic alphabet, he believed that the language reform can break the link of the people with written history. The language reform, which could mark the beginning of the loss of the mother tongue, the alienation of the people from their own history. He keenly felt the hypocrisy of those declarations about the alleged "state status" of the Kazakh language and tried his best to defend the rights of the Kazakh language and religion. Future showed that he was right, but on the 29 of December in 1928 he was arrested on charges of the Kazakh nationalism by the NKVD bodies. During the interrogation in 1929 in response to the accusation of "nationalism" Mirzhakyp explained: "We want our country belonged to us". He considered that education in the Steppe region should be "universal, free and compulsory". For to do this, he offered to open male and female madrassas and village schools at the expense of the state treasury in the cities, large towns, townships. Teaching in these schools was to be conducted in the native language and in Russian. The deputies of Congress considered it necessary for the development of public education to expand the network of professional schools: handicraft, medical, veterinary and others. At the same time attention was drawn to the fact that the learning should be conducted in the Kazakh language.
34. S. Torygyrov about happiness an djustice
Sultanmakhmut Toraigyrov was a great Kazakh poet andall his creative life was focused on the idea of the importance of education in the lives of people who could come closer to art, culture and science onlyby overcoming the all-pervasive ignorance. In the early twentieth century, maintaining the spirit of the Kazakh people by his poems, Sultanmakhmut Toraigyrov made a significant contribution to many events of the social and political life.
His works described the Bitter truth, social problems, human values, justice, poverty and wealth, knowledge and science.
35. The biological approach and Social Darwinism in interpreting political power
The biological approach:
power is not common only for people, and has it’s prefixes and roots in biological structures which are similar for both humans and animals.
the phenomenon of power and politics existed not only among animals but also in the widest of other biological formations.
Social Darwinism:
reducing the principles of natural law of human society to the laws of biological evolution.
36. The anthropological approach about political power in all social formations including prehistoric
- supporters of this approach disseminate the nation of political power into all social formations including prehistoric
- any actions are political if they are based on power and authority.
37. Psychological approach here power is mainly analyzed through the prism of subjective perception of it by individual. Psychological approach explores the power of the angle of perception of her man. Subjective perception is based on a special carrier power as a direct,for example Maria Lennon,V.V Zhirinovsky or derived from psychological features of human nature that some people have manifested in a sense of blind obedience, and others contrary to the sense of defiance and disobedience of all attributes of external influence.
Психологический подход исследует власть под углом зрения восприятия ее человеком. Субъективное восприятие либо основывается на особых качествах непосредственного носителя власти, либо вытекает из особенностей психологической природы человека, которая у одних людей проявляется в чувстве слепого повиновения, а у других наоборот в чувстве неповиновения и непокорности всяким атрибутам внешнего воздействия
38. Sociological approach consists in reducing the power to the influence of one social group to another. This approach automatically suggest an investigation of the study of interest groups that constitute the infrastructure of power to the political influence of one group on another. The core of power is status-role system of relations, enshrined in legal and other social norms. As part of this approach are the following research areas:
behaviorist - power is a special type of behavior, based on the possibility of changing the behavior of others;
teleological - power is treated as a condition for achieving certain goals, the achievement of expected results;
instrumentalist - power is interpreted as the use of certain means, including violence; as a special kind of relation between the rulers and the ruled;
functionalist - considering the power from the perspective of its functions carried out;
conflictological - determines the power in terms of forms and methods of resolving organizational conflicts.
Социологический подход состоит в сведении власти к влиянию одной социальной группы на другую. Такой подход автоматически предложит расследование изучения заинтересованных групп, которые составляют инфраструктуру власти к политическому влиянию одной группы на другую. Ядром власти служит статусно-ролевая система отношений, закрепленная в правовых и иных социальных нормах. В рамках этого подхода выделяются следующие направления исследований:
бихевиористское — власть является особым типом поведения, основанным на возможности изменения поведения других людей;
телеологическое — власть трактуется как условие достижения определенных целей, получение намеченных результатов;
инструменталистское — власть трактуется как возможность использования определенных средств, в том числе насилия; как особого рода отношение между управляющим и управляемым;
функционалистское — рассматривает власть под углом зрения осуществляемых ею функций;
конфликтологическое — определяет власть с точки зрения форм и методов разрешения организационных конфликтов.
39.Theory of political modernization
The basis thesis is the democratic form of organization of power in law and political society is incompatible with a low level of development of techno economic structure
Theory of political modernization is a theory used to explain the process of modernization within societies. The theory looks at the internal factors of a country while assuming that, with assistance, "traditional" countries can be brought to development in the same manner more developed countries have. Theory of political modernization attempts to identify the social variables which contribute to social progress and development of societies, and seeks to explain the process of social evolution. Theory of political modernization is subject to criticism originating among socialist and free-market ideologies, world-systems theorists, globalization theory and dependency theory among others. Theory of political modernization not only stresses the process of change but also the responses to that change. It also looks at internal dynamics while referring to social and cultural structures and the adaptation of new technologies.
That is transition from one type of political system to another is designated by the terms "political development" or "political modernization".
Political modernization – increase of ability of political system to adapt for new samples of the social purposes and to create new types of the institutes providing development of social system. Modernization is caused objective (social and economic and cultural) and subjective (ability of the political management to carry out effective change of political system) factors.
In the theory of political modernization the part of social modernization when transformations happen in all main spheres of social system lies: to economy, social sphere, culture, education etc. The choice of option of modernization begins in the sphere of policy – with manifestation of political will to changes. Consistently carried out political modernization serves as a factor, the guarantor of ensuring sequence of modernization of other spheres of public life.
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